Chapter 22 Westernization in the early stage of the second quarter

1. The Prime Minister’s Office and the Ministers of the Northern and Southern Oceans After the peace talks in Beijing in 1860, the most important thing for Prince Gong and others was how to get along with the Westerners in the future, so as to ensure mutual peace.Before the Opium War, the maritime countries' trade with China was handled by the Guangdong authorities.With the opening of five ports, Chinese and foreign commerce were divided into the governors of Liangjiang and Guangdong, and the governor of Guangdong and Guangxi, who also had the title of imperial envoy, was the center of gravity.The diplomatic representatives of the United Kingdom, the United States, and France stationed in Hong Kong, Macau, or Guangzhou have long been dissatisfied with the difficulty of negotiating with them, and hope to have direct contacts with Beijing.This is the origin of the request for treaty revision, and it is also one of the reasons for the Second War.

After the war, the envoys of Britain, Russia, France and the United States were officially stationed in Beijing.According to the Sino-Russian treaty, Russian envoys can communicate with the Military Aircraft Department, and ministers from other countries can of course assist, but it is not the Qing court's wish.Because the Military Aircraft Department is in charge of the highest military administration, it not only involves secrets, but also related to the system.Furthermore, in the future, the negotiations between China and foreign countries will become more and more complicated, so we must manage them carefully and focus on the matter, hoping to meet the opportune time.As a result of consideration by Prince Gong and others, they drafted six articles in the "Regulations for Handling Trade and Rehabilitation", one of which is to set up the prime minister's office for national affairs in the capital, led by the king's minister, and sent the military minister to concurrently manage it, so as to avoid ambiguity.The staff should be selected from Zhang Jing, the division staff of the cabinet, the ministry, and the military aircraft department, and they will be on duty in shifts.On January 20, 1861 (the 10th day of December in the 10th year of Xianfeng), the imperial edict sent Prince Gong and Guiliang Wenxiang to handle it as discussed.This is the beginning of China's establishment of a special diplomatic agency, and it is also the first measure of the New Deal.

The Prime Minister's Office of International Affairs was initially named the Prime Minister's Office of International Commercial Affairs.Prince Gong's negotiation with China and foreign countries is not limited to trade, in order to avoid doubts from outsiders.Externally referred to as the Prime Minister's Office of State Affairs.Delete the word "Tongshang", and it is commonly known as the Zongli Yamen, and then referred to as the General Administration or Translation Department, which is quite similar in nature to the Military Aircraft Department.First, both are temporary organizations, not official offices, and they are planned to be abolished as soon as foreign affairs become simpler.In fact, Westernization will become a permanent institution day after day.Second, both organizations are committee-based, each has a leader, and ministers are concurrently appointed, and the division members are recruited from other places.At the beginning, there were three ministers of the general administration, and only Wen Xiang was the minister of military aircraft.Later, Prince Gong and Gui Liang both joined the Military Aircraft Department, and Bao Jun, who joined him later, was also the Minister of Military Aircraft. The General Administration and the Military Aircraft Department almost became one.There are usually four to six ministers of military aircraft, and about ten ministers of the General Administration.Third, the names and facts of the two do not match. The Military Aircraft Department was originally used to keep secrets of military affairs, and later became the place for all government orders.The General Administration was originally in charge of Sino-foreign trade and negotiation, and later became the general collection of Western affairs, where business and educational affairs were handled together; Customs, ships, firearms, schools, railways, wires, mining, navy, etc., all new policies related to Western affairs were all handled by them. Planning and hosting.In short, the cause of self-improvement during the Tong and Guang years belonged to the General Administration, and its success or failure also depends on the General Administration.Prince Gong presided over the General Administration for about 24 years (1861-1884). During this period, the ministers of military aircraft and the longest duty were Wen Xiang (1861-1876), Bao Jun ( 1861-1884), later Shen Guifen (1869-1880), Li Hongzao (1876-1884), and Wen Xiang was the key figure in the early period.

In the regulations for dealing with the aftermath of trade and trade drawn up by Prince Gong and others, there is an article that separates ministers for the north and south ports. The reason is that the number of ports increases, starting from Niuzhuang in the north and ending in Qiongzhou in the south. The response is not effective, and countries are unwilling to follow.Moreover, Tianjin is one mouthful, and it is very close to Beijing. If various countries conduct business in Tianjin, if there are no senior officials stationed to manage it, there will be many obstacles.At that time, the five imperial envoys had been moved from Guangzhou to Shanghai. They were first served by the Governor of Liangjiang, and then by the Governor of Jiangsu in Shanghai.After Tianjin was opened as a port, since the governor of Zhili could not be stationed exclusively there, Tianjin, Niuzhuang, and Dengzhou were combined to set up a minister of trade and commerce. If there was a request, he would handle it together with the governor of Zhili, the governor of Shandong, and the governor of Fengtian. Beiyang Minister of Commerce and Industry.The old five ports and the newly added ports along the Yangtze River are still handled by the imperial envoy stationed in Shanghai, commonly known as the Nanyang Minister of Commerce.

In addition to the above reasons, the setting of the Minister of Commerce and Industry has other motives.For one thing, if there are special personnel to handle each business, the General Administration can reduce the load, and it can be used as a buffer when necessary.Moreover, the negotiations between China and foreign countries are all handled in Tianjin and Shanghai, and the ministers stationed in Beijing will have nothing to do, and they may retreat on their own after a long time.In 1870, Tianjin's diplomatic negotiations became more and more frequent. The three ministers of trade and commerce were abolished, and the governor of Zhili was replaced as the imperial envoy. All foreign affairs and coastal defense matters were managed. They moved to Tianjin every spring and returned to Baoding in winter.At this time, the governor of Zhili was Li Hongzhang.In the same year, Zeng Guofan, governor of Liangjiang, was appointed as Minister of Nanyang Commercial Affairs.From then on, the Minister of Commerce of the North and South Oceans became a fixed part-time post of the governors of Liangjiang and Zhili.Jifu is an important town, Zhidu is the leader of Xinjiang officials, Li Hongzhang has been in his position for a long time, Beijing is a dry city, and Beiyang is far more important than Nanyang.Most of the Beiyang ministers were from the Huai army system, and most of the Nanyang ministers were from the Hunan army system.

2. Hurd and Customs The promotion of the New Deal or Westernization was directly or indirectly stimulated and inspired by the West.Personally, Hurd (1835-1911) is particularly relevant, whatever his motives, and his influence is undeniable. Robert Hart, an Irishman, graduated with honors from the Royal College of Belfast (Belfast), majoring in Chinese and philosophy.He came to Hong Kong in 1854 and was informed by Governor Bao Ling.At the beginning, he worked as an assistant translator at the British Consulate in Ningbo. In 1858, he was transferred to be an assistant at the Guangzhou Consulate and secretary of the Anglo-French Management Committee.In the following year, he worked as an interpreter at the Guangzhou Consulate and transferred to the Deputy Tax Department of Guangdong Customs.In 1861, Li Taitai, the first chief tax officer, asked for leave to return to England due to medical treatment of an old injury. He appointed GH Fitz-Roy, the tax officer of Jiang Customs, and Hurd to take charge of it.Fei Zilai was unable to understand Chinese and Chinese affairs, and Hurd actually presided over it.Li Taitai was twenty-nine years old, and He De was twenty-six years old. These two young people were both good at administrative organization, but their temperaments were quite different.Li Taitai is cunning and domineering, vicious and arrogant, while Hurd is more easy-going and sensible.When I arrived in Beijing in June of this year, I met Wen Xiang first, followed by Prince Gong, and reported the situation of expropriation and the measures that should be adopted in the future.It is also suggested to purchase military ships and enter the river to assist in the suppression.Wen Xiang and Prince Gong had a good impression of him, and formally appointed him to handle the affairs of the General Taxation Department.The opening of the Yangtze River port should have been done in advance at the request of Hurd after the chaos was pacified.Governor Wenzhi of Huguang learned of the news of the coup d'état in Beijing, which came from Hurd.In 1863, Li Taitai resigned, and Hurd served as the general tax department until 1908.

Customs administration in the Qing Dynasty has always been in the hands of personnel related to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and there are many disadvantages.After the five-port trade agreement, Inner Mongolia remained the same as before, and lacked knowledge of foreign countries. Foreign businessmen took advantage of the opportunity to steal, make more and make less, and falsely report goods. They often included expensive ones in the cheap ones, and even smuggled them all. Not for inspection.The consuls of various countries, who are concurrently served by businessmen, communicate with them, so that the positive amount of millions of taels cannot be collected every year.In 1854, Shanghai Customs was represented by outsiders, and in 1859 the Foreign Tax Department system was formally established.Li Taitai once drew up the customs administrative plan and the regulations for the opening of the new customs. The scale was gradually prepared. Prince Gong gave him a decree explaining the duties of the General Taxation Department. Merits and demerits.According to Hurd's estimation, in the future, 10 million taels will be obtained every year [Note: Shigeguan's annual income is nearly 7 million taels, after 1871, more than 11 million taels].In 1864, Hart and the General Administration agreed that the Customs would hire outsiders to help with taxation regulations. Hart had the full power to appoint and dismiss customs officers, and the General Tax Department moved from Shanghai to Beijing.Foreigners include chief and deputy taxation officers, assistants, and assistants. Except for a very small number of French, American, and German people, they are all British. Although they are based on personal talents, they are also related to the trade volume of their countries. strive for.The taxation department is in charge of everything, and the supervision is useless.seventies.There are about 400 foreigners in total, and up to 600 in Xuan, with a total salary of more than one million taels.The annual salary of each tax department is from 3,000 taels to 6,000 taels, or 9,000 taels, the annual salary of the deputy tax department is from 3,000 taels to 3,600 taels, and the assistant is from 9,000 taels to 2,000 taels. There were also applicants who had graduated from colleges, and four people including HB Morse from Harvard participated in 1874].Low-level personnel such as book offices, clerks, general officials, etc. are Chinese, and their annual salary is only two to three hundred taels to one thousand two thousand taels.Valuation and inspection of goods by foreign personnel are often inaccurate and untrue, they cover up foreign businessmen, and often collect intelligence for their own country, which is not devoted to their duties.

Bruce had said during Li Taitai's time that this outsider's management of the customs system could not only guarantee China's tax revenue, but also protect British interests. It could also serve as China's diplomatic adviser, provide British intelligence, and influence the Chinese government virtually.During Hurd's period, tax revenue increased year by year, and after more than ten years, it reached 20 million taels a year, making it the most reliable source of income.During the Tongzhi period, the funds for the New Deal were taken from it in the 19th century, and the central government and Xinjiang officials trusted him a lot.His influence is greater, and the holding of the New Deal is mostly due to his establishment.Prince Gong and Wen Xiang consulted him when they encountered problems, and sometimes they also discussed with him when appointing governors. Diplomatic issues, of course, needless to say.For example, the new-style education and the post office are also under his control, and the greatest power is still in the finances.Income from customs duties shall be deducted from foreign debts indemnity first.In 1860, apart from the 1.3 million taels of indemnity paid to Britain and France by the Ministry of Household Affairs, Zhili, and Guangdong, the remaining 40% was apportioned under various customs duties.From 1861 to 1864 Shanghai borrowed 630,000 taels of foreign debt, in 1862 and 1864 Fujian borrowed 650,000 taels, and in 1857 and 1864 The 620,000 taels borrowed by Guangzhou in six years and the loans during Zuo Zongtang's Western Expedition were either repaid or guaranteed by customs duties, which has since become a common practice.

Chen Chi, who advocated reform in the 1990s, commented on the harm of outsiders in charge of the customs as follows: where the world's interests lie, power lies, and one should not be easily impersonated.But there are people who are not of my race, who do not return after a long vacation, entrenched in vital resources, and deeply entrenched.The annual income of customs clearance and taxation is 30 million yuan.Introduce hundreds of people from the party and waste 2 million workers.Gradually, the Yin held the court meeting, showing the diplomatic relations between the two countries.Occasionally invading it, falling to the ground, tons of banknotes and millions, the source of the country's benefits, is determined to control and take it as its own.The wealth of family assets can be the enemy of the country.Obstructing the tax rules, favoring Western businessmen, being loyal to others, and harboring ghosts.The British monarch bestowed a baron, and the merits of the other country can be seen.When Westerners enter China, they respect and fear them, regard them as heavenly beings, and treat officials with contempt.Hurd's power was indeed enormous, except for Prince Gong and Li Hongzhang, no one could compare with it at that time.However, as far as the customs itself is concerned, his achievements will never be wiped out.In total, Hart has been in China for 54 years and worked in customs for 49 years, of which 46 years were in the General Tax Department.

3. The cooperation policy and diplomatic inducement of Britain and the United States After 1860, Prince Gong and Wen Xiang determined to get along well with Western countries.All countries also want to obey and obey each other, without mutual suspicion, so as to make China stable, so that they can enjoy the rights they have acquired, and then expand them, so that China can follow their guidance.The United Kingdom, which monopolizes most of China's trade volume, hopes to develop business smoothly. In addition to helping the Qing Dynasty put down internal strife, it also promotes China's foreign relations as much as possible, and at the same time strengthens its self-defense forces to prevent its sovereign territory from being seized by a certain country.Bruce, the first British envoy to Beijing (served from 1860 to 1864) and his successor Aliguo (served from 1865 to 1869), adopted the this policy.The United States attaches great importance to the East Asian market, and Japan is more interested in it after opening up.After the Civil War, the country recovered.For the revival of industry and commerce, for the sake of future interests, China must not be divided by foreign powers before it can reserve room for itself.Equal benefits and equal opportunities are its consistent policies toward China.Britain believes that in the future, the great powers should join hands to avoid competition and not cancel each other out.The United States has the same feeling. Secretary of State Seward (WH Seward, served from 1861 to 1869) is the maker of China policy, and the first Minister Burlingame in Beijing (served from 1861 to 1869) 7) As the executor.The United Kingdom and the United States adopted parallel diplomacy to persuade Prince Gong and Wen Xiang to form friendship with foreign countries and reform internally, borrowing the help of Westerners in everything, and imitating Western methods. This is the so-called cooperation policy.In terms of benefits, they are kind to others. If China handles it properly, it can be beneficial, otherwise it will cause great harm.The attitudes of Russia and France are not the same as those of Britain and the United States. However, Russia has gained a lot in East Asia, and it has turned to manage the Near East and the Middle East. It may be worthwhile to wait and see.France is in a relatively isolated situation and is busy managing Vietnam, hoping to take the opportunity to strengthen its position as a guardian in China and promote other rights.

The initial manifestation of the cooperation policy can be seen as an example of the renewal of the new treaty between China and foreign countries. Prince Gong and others expected that other Western countries would follow in the footsteps of Britain, France, Russia, and the United States. They requested a treaty and ordered the Shanghai imperial envoy to prevent it, but it was impossible.From 1861 to 1874, Prussia (1861), Portugal (1862), Denmark, the Netherlands (1863), Spain (1863) signed treaties with China successively. 4), Belgium (1865), Italy (1866), Austria (1869), Japan (1871), Peru (1874) ten countries.Prussia is an emerging power, and the General Administration initially expressed hesitation. Britain and France acted on their behalf.Thanks to the assistance of the United Kingdom and the United States, Denmark also got what it wanted, and the contract also gave Britain and the United States certain conveniences in terms of commercial terms.There were twists and turns after the Portuguese treaty was signed, and it was not formally established until 1887. China recognized that Macau would always be owned by Portugal, and Portugal agreed to assist China in collecting Macau's tobacco tax. This was Hart's mediation.Due to the abuse of Chinese laborers in Peru, there is a special case for investigation.Most of these treaties were signed in Tianjin, because the General Administration was unwilling to allow representatives of various countries to come to Beijing before signing the treaty, so as to avoid direct negotiations with them.The content of the treaty is the same as that signed by the previous countries, including various privileges. It can be seen that the people in charge of the General Administration still lack modern diplomatic knowledge and are at the mercy of outsiders.The exception is the Sino-Japanese Treaty. The internal revival of the Qing court was not completely spontaneous.When Burlingame first arrived in Beijing, he persuaded Prince Gong to build an army capable of fighting. The ostensible reason was to quell the civil strife, and the other motive, which was inconvenient to express clearly, was to strengthen Ward's ever-victorious army and increase the right of the United States to speak in China.In June 1864, when Nanking was about to be captured, Burlingame ordered the American consul to cooperate with Chinese officials to recognize China's legitimate interests, properly implement the treaty provisions, and replace force with fair diplomacy.The British not only trained troops for China in Tianjin and Shanghai successively, but also persuaded them to buy military ships, with the same intention as the United States.In November 1865 and March 1866, Hurd and Counselor of the British Embassy, ​​respectively, became famous and submitted the "On the Sidelines" to the General Administration. "On" and "New Discussions on Foreign Countries", suggested the establishment of other new policies, and British and American diplomats participated in the matter beforehand.At that time, the envoys stationed in Beijing often met at Burlingame's residence to discuss future policies toward China. Before "On the Sidelines" was put forward, Burlingame told Wen Xiang that all countries were willing to negotiate with China in a fair manner.Wen Xiang also said that he is a true friend of China, he handles things peacefully, and knows the generalities of China and foreign countries.Since Hurd took charge of customs administration, the tax revenue has increased sharply, and the General Administration has a lot of affection for him.Wade is the Englishman who is most familiar with China's affairs. His "New Commentary on Foreign Countries" was sent by Ali Guo on behalf of him, which is no different from Hurd's support.What the two discussed was nothing more than the various advantages and disadvantages of internal governance and diplomacy, but attributed to the urgent need to use the law to strengthen ourselves.First of all, they emphasized that the relationship between the treaty is of great importance.Hurd said: There is a treaty to rely on whether something should be done or not. If it is not complied with, war will inevitably be called, and it will be forced or acted on behalf of others. It is better to do it yourself and do it early.What he attaches great importance to are casting silver coins, building railways, building ships, and installing electric wires. He advocates joint ventures with foreign and Chinese merchants, expressly stating that this will be a must for outsiders in the future.Secondly, in order to allow ministers to meet with them, they sent envoys to various countries.Wade's words were more aggressive, tantamount to intimidation.He said: All countries have important tasks in China, which cannot be abandoned, and China has made a covenant to protect them. If they do not follow through, intervention will inevitably occur, and China will not be able to unify itself.If you decide to try it out, all countries will be delighted to hear it.In addition to sending envoys, railways, and electric wires, hardware and coal should also be mined. The required funds can be borrowed, and the required talents can be arranged to help outsiders, that is, Sino-foreign joint ventures.He also said: Although it is said that it is beneficial to foreign countries to plan things on behalf of various countries, it is actually more beneficial to China.A Liguo claimed that Wade was written by order, and hoped that it would not be shelved lightly, and the General Administration had no choice but to pay attention.So it can be seen that the so-called New Deal did not come from China spontaneously, but was caused by external coercion. The Sino-British Treaty of Tianjin in 1858 stipulated that after ten years, the tax rules and trade regulations should be revised.The General Administration knows that there will be new requirements at that time.In recent years, outsiders have repeatedly mentioned matters such as audiences, sending envoys, electric wires, railways, and mining. They also attach great importance to the navigation of inland rivers. However, private warehouses are set up in the interior, and salt is smuggled.In June 1867, based on years of experience, Prince Gong and others also felt that all countries were dangerous, cunning, and obstinate in situations. They were not only limited to those already contained in the treaty, and it was difficult to change them slightly. In order to increase the number of amendments next year, we must do what we want. I am afraid that the amendment of the agreement will cause serious consequences, so we must plan countermeasures. Therefore, I asked the ministers of trade and commerce of the South and the North to send people to Beijing for inquiries.In October, please inform and negotiate with the relevant provincial authorities to express your views on the above-mentioned interviews, dispatch of envoys, etc., and plan carefully. Yin worry can eliminate disasters by weeping and weeping.Zeng Guofan believed that except for audiences, sending envoys, and mining, nothing else was feasible.Zuo Zongtang hated Hurd and Wade for a long time, and only agreed to see and send envoys.Li Hongzhang and Shen Baozhen (Minister of Shipping) had roughly the same views. They were in favor of seeing audiences, sending envoys, power lines, railways, ships, and mining, and they could try it out on their own.The one who opposed it was the official document of Zhili Governor Manchu. In 1868, A Liguo sent the abridged treaty to the General Administration three times, requesting that foreign goods be exempted from lijin, customs duties corrected, inland river navigation allowed, docks along the Yangtze River opened, customs offices set up, inland warehouses set up, and foreigners sent from foreign countries. Set up official management, import foreign salt, dig coal mines, etc.The General Administration refused to fully agree.A Liguo sailed on inland rivers, set up warehouses in the interior, and continued to dig coal mines. He also had disputes over the number of additional wharves, as well as electric wires and railways.In November, J. Ross Browne, the US envoy, was invited to the General Administration for negotiations. His words were not bad, and finally the two sides drew up a contract.The governments of Britain, the United States, and France may act too hastily, which may arouse the Chinese people to resist. Mining, road construction and inland river navigation will directly affect people's livelihood.Moreover, in principle Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang and others have expressed their approval, and the General Administration has also made concessions in promoting trade, so everything may come out gradually.The following year, the British government decided to temporarily postpone the treaty amendment to wait for the psychological changes of the Chinese people, and the United States agreed.A Liguo proposed to the General Administration that the draft drafted last year should be regarded as a provisional charter, not an amendment to the contract.The General Administration said that if the amendment is not counted, it must wait another ten years before discussing the amendment.Ah Liguo is willing to discuss with you again.On October 23, the Chinese and English New Testaments were marked.The tax rates for imported opium and exported silk were increased.British businessmen tried their best to oppose it, but the British government refused to approve it.It was not until 1876, when the Yantai Treaty was signed, that it came to an end.The so-called conciliatory policies of Britain and the United States towards China must not harm their actual interests. During the Tongzhi period, most of the new treaties concluded with other countries were facilitated by outsiders, and sending envoys abroad was also related to outsiders.The British envoy frequently offered to invite him, but the General Administration declined the invitation on the pretext that China had nothing to do abroad.However, I also feel that outsiders have a deep understanding of China's hypocrisy, and they are all at a loss about China's foreign sentiments and hypocrisy. They intend to send people abroad to explore its pros and cons, and to raise funds. What they worry about is the issue of etiquette.In 1866, Hart asked to return to England to get married, and suggested that Prince Gong and Wen Xiang send students from the Tong Wen Guan to accompany him, so as to broaden their knowledge.Prince Gong expressed his approval because he had nothing to do with the system of special envoys, and Bin Chun, the secretary of the General Taxation Department, led three students from Tong Wenguan to go [Note: Bin Chun and the three students are all bannermen].He went to Paris, London, Sweden, Russia, and Germany successively, and was received by the Queen of England. He went back and forth in May.This is the first time China has sent a sightseeing group to the West, and some of Bin Chun's knowledge of the West can be found in Bin Chun's travel notes. In 1865, when Burlingame returned to the United States to report on his duties, the Minister of General Administration asked him to explain the misunderstanding to the countries he had passed through.He replied that if there is a dispute between China and foreign countries, he is willing to mediate it.After Burlingame arrived in Washington, Seward ordered him to tell the General Administration that he welcomed Chinese envoys to the United States. In 1867, Burlingame decided to resign, and Prince Gong hosted a banquet for his ancestors.Burlingame himself said that if there is any injustice with other countries in the future, Iran will make a great contribution, just like China sent Iraq as an envoy.In order to negotiate the revision of the contract, Heard repeatedly urged the General Administration to send envoys to ease the threats of other countries. Prince Gong and Wen Xiang were moved by them.Now that Burlingame has said so, Wen Hsiang took the opportunity to invite him to serve as a Chinese envoy.After many discussions, Hurd urged him from the sidelines, but Burlingame resolutely accepted.In November, he was officially sent to treaty countries to act as Minister of Foreign Affairs of China and Foreign Countries.Zhang Jing of the General Administration named Dao Zhigang and the named magistrate Sun Jiagu also accompanied him under the same name, which was actually a conference office. John M. Brown, a translator at the British Embassy, ​​and E. de Champs, a customs judge, were assistants (secretaries) ), intended to win over Britain and France to form a mixed mission.In 1868, Burlingame first went to the United States to meet with President A. Johnson.So he gave a speech, saying that China is adopting Western culture and stepping into the path of peace and progress.In July, signed the China-U.S. Continuation Treaty with Seward, that is, the annex to the Tianjin Treaty, stipulating that the people of the two countries can travel and stay freely, give preferential treatment to study tours, and set up schools.The United States does not interfere in China's internal affairs. If China intends to build power lines, railways, etc., it is also willing to provide technical assistance. It can be called a treaty of equality.Among them, the interests of the United States are naturally taken into consideration. For example, the people can come and live freely because the United States needs Chinese laborers, and the establishment of schools is for the convenience of missionary work in China.When they arrived in London, Britain's attitude was quite cold, and they had to see the queen two months later.The British foreign minister stated that he has no intention of forcing China to exercise its right to independence, but will still use force when necessary.The following year (1870), Burlingame went to Paris, traveled through Sweden, Denmark, Holland, and Germany, arrived in Russia in 1870, and died of illness in St. Petersburg in February.Zhigang and Sun Jiagu led the mission to Belgium, Italy, and Spain, and then returned east via Paris. Although the ministers of various countries have been stationed in Beijing, they have not been able to meet with them.The reason given by the General Administration is that it is inconvenient for the emperor to be old and the empress dowagers of the two palaces to listen to the government behind a curtain.The minister was responsible for not treating each other with courtesy, and was very angry with his words.The General Administration said that if you want to have an audience, you must kneel and worship, but you also know that you are not allowed to have an audience.At the time of preparatory revision of the contract, Zeng Guofan and others were all in charge after Tongzhi was in charge, and they were allowed to do as requested, and the etiquette did not need to be forced.In 1873, the Empress Dowager withdrew the curtain, ministers from various countries brought up the old matter again, and the General Administration no longer insisted on kneeling.On June 29th, at Yuziguang Pavilion in Tongzhi, due to the efforts of the Japanese special envoy, Fuejima Tanechen, he first visited, followed by the envoys of Russia, the United States, Britain, France, and the Netherlands.This is the first time that a Chinese emperor received a foreign envoy with an equal ceremony.The Ziguang Pavilion has always been the place where foreign vassal emperors give congratulations and banquets, and the countries are still dissatisfied.Soon after Guangxu succeeded to the throne, the Empress Dowager hung the curtain for the second time, and she was not allowed to see her again until Guangxu was in charge. 4. Establishment of military industry Under the principle of self-improvement, military training is the most important thing, and military training is based on making weapons. Prince Gong advocated hiring foreign craftsmen to make weapons, and Zeng Guofan also advocated learning from outsiders to build guns and boats.In 1861, Xu Shou and Hua Hengfang were ordered to trial manufacture in Anqing.In 1863, because of Hua Hengfang's recommendation, Yung Wing said that Zeng Guofan bought his own machines and set up a factory to manufacture machines, not only for ships and cannons, but also for other utensils [Note: See the above for Yung Wing's resume].Zeng Guofan immediately sent him to the United States to purchase.In the same year, Li Hongzhang purchased machines from Hong Kong, recruited foreign craftsmen, and set up a bureau to cast cannonballs and short cannons for the Changsheng Army and the Huai Army. He appointed Englishmen Halliday Macartney and Ding Richang to manage them respectively.In 1865, the machines owned by Yung Wing were shipped to Shanghai, and Li Hongzhang ordered them to merge with the existing equipment in Shanghai to form the Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau, known as Jiangnan Iron Works.In the following year, the Jinling Manufacturing Bureau was set up, which was still in charge of Ma Geli.The Tianjin Machinery Bureau (later renamed Beiyang Machinery Bureau) established in 1867 was planned by Chonghou, the Minister of Commerce and Industry of the Three Kingdoms, and the head office was JAT Meadows, an Englishman.After Li Hongzhang became the governor of Zhili, he reorganized and replaced Mitoshi with Shen Baojing of the Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau. The Shanghai, Jinling, and Tianjin Machinery Bureaus were the first to be set up, and their scales were relatively large, which would have a huge impact on future military production. Their operations and creations were all related to Li Hongzhang, and outsiders participated in all of them.All the required funds come from customs duties, and the results are excellent in Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau.During the war against twisting, most of the guns and ammunition needed by the Huai army were made by Jinling Manufacturing Bureau.In the future, the cannons of the Dagu Fort were also cast by the Bureau, and they exploded twice during the test firing. If it was not that Magri was unwilling to strengthen China's external defense force, it was due to poor technology.The Tianjin Machinery Bureau is the general assembly of the Beiyang Army. In addition to supplying the Huai Army and training troops in Zhili and Jiangnan, it also distributes aid to Jilin, Fengtian, Henan and other provinces.Beiyang Navy also took more ammunition to the Bureau and Jiangnan Manufacturing General Bureau.A total of ten years, in addition to the above three bureaus, Xi'an, Lanzhou, Fujian, Guangzhou, and Jinan have successively set up bureaus. As early as 1856, Li Taitai suggested purchasing ships for use in fighting against the Taiping Army.The Jiangnan battalion was defeated, and there was no hope of recovery for Jinling. If a ship bombed the cannon, it would be easy to reap the rewards.Because of this, Hurd also stated that he would run his own ship, and the funds should be raised under the item of foreign medicine (opium). In addition to the regular tax on imports, if it is transported and sold in the mainland, he will also levy some silver;Prince Gong and Zeng Guofan both agreed.In the following year (1861), he was appointed as the manager of Li Taitai in England.Li Taitai entrusted S. Osborn of the British Navy to undertake the undertaking, purchased seven gunboats and recruited more than 600 soldiers.Li Taitai believes that the Chinese are ignorant and ignorant, and that everything needs to be strengthened. He claims that he is not a Chinese official, but he does not listen to China's orders. This time he deliberately manipulated and signed a contract with Aspen. When changing careers, the Chinese government is not allowed to direct command, and all foreign-style ships in China are also dispatched by Aspen.The General Administration refused to agree, and the main Chinese sent a person as the president, and Aspen as the gang leader, who was dispatched by the governor under the control of the governor, and the salary could be managed by Li Taitai.In July 1863, the General Administration also allowed Li Taitai to return 35% of the properties he obtained to Aspen, and 70% if Aspen recovered by himself.The current chaos is not far from being settled, and the Hunan and Huai armies want to achieve their own success, and they are afraid of being coerced by outsiders.Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang resolutely opposed the new measures.A Siben must act according to the original contract, otherwise the officers and soldiers of the ship will be disbanded.Bruce intervened. Although the General Administration was in a dilemma, it still insisted that the Chinese should be the president. Even if they broke up, they would not hand over the warships to outsiders.Zeng Guofan changed his request to distribute the military rounds to other countries, so that Li Taitai would lose his support, or A Siben and the generals of the Hunan Army should be assigned to divide their forces.Both the General Administration and Bruce asked Burlingame to mediate.Burlingame neither wanted the British to control the Chinese navy alone, nor did he want China to have a new type of fleet, so that the terrorist warships would fall into the hands of Chinese pirates or the southern US government. He proposed to repatriate them to the UK and sell them, which was agreed by Bruce and Aspen. .In November, Binglun withdrew and changed the price. Originally used 1.67 million taels, only more than 200,000 taels were recovered, and the rest was lost.The General Administration defrauded Li Taitai, so he was dismissed for delaying the operation of the ship, and the General Taxation Department was taught by Hurd.This also shows that it was not easy for the Qing government to hold a new deal.The central and local governments are not coordinated, outsiders have ulterior motives, and there are conflicts among the great powers.After this unpleasant incident, Prince Gong and Wen Xiang, who advocated the New Deal, were greatly frustrated. Shipbuilding and gun making are the two new policies of the self-strengthening movement. During the period of purchasing warships, Xu Shou and others have already built a small steamer in Anqing, but the movement is slow.After Jiangnan was pacified, Li Hongzhang, following Ding Richang's proposition, asked the General Administration to set up a factory to build ships, and rewarded Chinese businessmen for purchasing.The Jiangnan General Manufacturing Bureau has the dual mission of gun manufacturing and shipbuilding. To suppress the war against the enemy, Fang Yin first made guns.Shipbuilding began in 1867, and the first ship was completed in the following year. The hull steam boiler was made by itself, and the machinery was purchased from overseas.In the next three years, there will be three ships.In 1872, the Hai'an (Yan) ship was 30 feet long, with 400 horsepower and 26 cannons. It was known as the largest ship in China.1875.Another class of Yuyuan was completed, but it was still not as strong as foreign warships, and the cost was high, so the production was stopped, and a total of six ships were completed.The Fuzhou Shipbuilding Bureau was founded by Zuo Zongtang, who always specialized in shipbuilding.The Zuo army's recovery of Huzhou in Zhejiang Province was thanks to the help of the soldiers. Afterwards, Zuo imitated one and tried to sail to the West Lake.The legal person Dekebei and Riyige advised him to purchase turbines and supervise the construction on his behalf, which was approved in July 1866.Riyige once served in the French Navy, and he and Hu Guangyong were left to prepare.Soon after, the governor of Shaanxi and Gansu was transferred from the left, with Shen Baozhen in charge of shipping affairs, and Riyige and Dekebei as the principal and deputy supervisors. With the support of the French Ministry of the Navy, he began to purchase machines and recruit craftsmen.In 1868, the factory was officially started, and the factory was located in Mawei, Fuzhou.Zuo's plan is not only to use this to organize the navy, but also to develop shipping.Both military ships and commercial ships were built to promote water transport, military and government affairs, relief of merchants and people, and prosperity of customs taxes.Within five years, the cost will be about three million taels.Mainly from tariffs, followed by lijin, there were ten military ships and five merchant ships, each with a displacement ranging from 50 tons to 1,560 tons, which were later managed by China itself. 5. The Beginning of Western-style Education At the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, the relationship with Russia was important. During the Kangxi period, the children of the Eight Banners were ordered to study Russian in the Russian Pavilion.In the Sino-British negotiations in the eighteenth century, compradors in West China and Guangdong acted as translators, while negotiations in Nanjing, Tianjin, and Beijing were performed by foreign priests.The quality of compradors and general affairs is different, and the goods are addicted to profit. Foreign priests not only often fail to achieve their goals, but even play out their selfish intentions and take sides.Furthermore, when negotiating with outsiders, one must be clear about the situation so as not to be deceived.In 1859, Guo Songtao edited Chen Yuyi's Taoism, one of which was to be familiar with foreign languages.After the agreement was signed in Beijing, Prince Gong and others drafted the aftermath regulations. It is also said that when negotiating with outsiders, if the language is incomprehensible and the characters are indistinguishable, everything will be separated, and they must not be expected to compromise.Please select people who can learn English and French from among the businessmen in Guangdong and Shanghai, and send them to Beijing to select bright children of the Eight Banners and learn from them.Over the years, there was no suitable person in Guangdong or Shanghai, so we had to hire the British priest JS Burdon and recruit ten students. In July 1862, we started teaching English and named it Tongwenguan.The funds are allocated by the customs.In the following year, French and Russian libraries continued.Bulton resigned and was replaced by another British priest, John Fryer; another year, he was succeeded by an American priest, WAP Martin.As for the students being limited to the children of the Eight Banners, it probably followed the method of the Russian Pavilion, and did not want the Han people to learn about foreign affairs, but it will finally be opened in the future. The Shanghai Cantonese Dialect Institute was established following the Jingshi Tongwen Institute, and Feng Guifen first discussed it.The training at the Jingshi Tongwen Hall is mainly about negotiating and responding, and Feng's insights go a step further.He said that Shanghai and Guangzhou are the gathering places for foreigners, and Westernization is also a great policy for the country to attract Huaiyuan. It should be shared by people who are well-read and rational.In 1863, Li Hongzhang entered the play according to the example. Please follow the example of Tong Wenguan to set up language and literature schools in Shanghai and Guangzhou. , into the library to study.With a large number of people, talents come out of themselves.What Westerners are good at is the technique of reckoning, the principle of investigating things, and the method of making utensils and respecting images. They are all professional and pragmatic. Only then can we explore the hidden things, from the superficial to the subtle.I am clever and clever in China, how can I be inferior to Westerners?If you are proficient in Western languages, and pass them on from generation to generation, you can gradually master all the skills of ships, firearms, etc., which seems to be helpful in the way of self-improvement in China.After the performance was approved, Feng drew up the regulations, which were called the Cantonese Dialect House, and the American priest Young John Allen was the earliest English teacher.Students who have completed the three-year term and can translate all Western books are regarded as graduates.In 1870, it was merged into Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau.The Western language teacher of Guangzhou Tongwen Center is the beauty Tan Shun, and most of the students are students of the Eight Banners, who have made little contribution.The Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau has a machine school attached to it, and the Fuzhou Political Bureau has a Qiushitang Art Bureau attached to it.The Qiushi Tang Art Bureau is divided into the French School and the British School, one for shipbuilding and one for driving.In the future, many important naval generals were born here, and the famous translator Yan Fu (Zong Guang) was also one of them. Prince Gong and Wen Xiang also felt that the manufacture of machines and firearms, as well as sailing and marching, are all related to astronomy and arithmetic. If they do not start from the basics, they will still be useless.In 1866, it was decided to add an astronomical and arithmetic hall to the Tongwen Hall, recruiting tribute students and officials from outside Beijing with a formal education below the fifth grade to study in the hall, and hired Western professors, and ordered the Chief Taxation Officer Hurd, who was on vacation in England, to look for it on his behalf. .Conservative censor Zhang Shengzao and university scholar Wo Ren pointed out that it is shameful to use the barbarians to change the summer, and it is shameful to learn from the Westerners, which caused a heated debate.恭親王等再說明天算的重要，與西學之必須肄習，中國所當學者，固不止輪船、槍砲，即以輪船槍砲而論，僱買以應其用，計雖便而法終在人；講究以徹其原，法既明而用將在我。一則權宜之策，一則久遠之謀。天下之恥，莫恥於不若人，今不以不如人為恥，而猶以學人為恥，將安於不如而終不學，遂可雪其恥乎？進一步主張令翰林院編修、檢討、庶吉士等一體學習。倭仁則謂立國之道，尚禮義不尚權謀；根本之圖，在人心不在技藝，今以夷人為師，將盡驅中國之眾，咸歸於夷。恭親王續予駁斥，並云倭仁如果有妙策可以制外國而不為外國所制，他們願意追隨，否則僅以忠信為甲冑，禮義為干櫓等詞，謂可折衝樽俎，足以制敵之命，實未敢信。倭仁仍說以夷為師上虧國體，下失人心，必將墮入夷人術中。這次的爭論，表面上的勝利歸於恭親王，而士大夫聚黨私議不息，阻攔投考同文館的人員，多方譏詆，斥恭親王為鬼子六（恭親王行六）。 算學館的學生大都為中年之人，無何基礎，某洋教習拒絕講授，同文館幾乎解體。時丁韙良返美進修，因赫德的敦促，於一八六九年回抵北京，被任為總教習，即館長，積極改進，學生約四十餘名，仍以旗人為多。不久添設德文館。一八七一年學生增至五百餘，不限旗籍，有的來自上海廣方言館，或廣州同文館。肄業期限定為八年，前三年學習語文及西洋史地，第四年授以算學、代數，第五年為幾何、三角、博物，第六年為實用重學、微積分、測量，第七年為化學、天文、地質、礦務，第八年為政治、經濟、國際法，程度相當於初級文理專科學校。總稅務司中的西人亦有任教者，如馬士等。中國初設駐外公使時，卒業於同文館的學生供職使館者頗不乏人，以一八七九年為例，倫敦使館三人，巴黎二人，柏林三人，聖彼得堡四人，華盛頓二人，東京二人。丁韙良在職約三十年，一八九四年辭職，繼之者為歐利甫（GH Oliver）。 教會學校亦以十九世紀六十年代的發展為速，美國的新教傳教士最為積極。舉其著者，如一八六四年美國長老會在山東登州開辦文會館，一八六五年英國浸禮會在山東青州開辦廣文書院，後合併為齊魯大學。一八六五年美國聖公會在上海開辦聖約翰書院，即日後的聖約翰大學。一八六六年，美國監理會在北京開辦匯文書院，即日後的燕京大學。一八六七年，美國公理會在直隸通州開辦華北書院，同年美國長老會將原設寧波的崇信學校，遷於杭州，易名育英學院，即日後的之江大學。 官辦學堂開設之後，進而派遣幼童出洋學習。倡之者為容閎，傅蘭雅亦宣傳頗力。容閎認為復興中國的根本途徑在教育，以西洋文化改進中國文化，他之樂於為曾國藩採辦機器，意在相機實現此一理想。一八六八年以來，屢與江蘇巡撫丁日昌談及，具體方案為先試派十二至十四歲的幼童一百二十人，分四批出洋，以十五年為期，派漢人教習同往。中美續增條約載明互相優待學生，容閎主張將幼童送往美國。一八七○年，丁日昌商之於曾國藩，由曾正式上奏，並與李鴻章聯名致書總署。美使從旁慫恿，英使亦謂可先赴美國，將來再派往英國。容閎在上海設一出洋局，招學生三十名，大多為來自香港的廣東幼童。一八七二年，陳蘭彬、容閎被派為正副委員，經理留學事宜，設辦事處於康涅狄格州的哈特福德（Hartford）。是後三年，第二至第四批學生陸續前往。及吳嘉善任遊學委員，不滿學生的言行，斥其適異忘本，目無師長，難期成材，即成亦不能為中國用，力主撤回。李鴻章、容閎爭之無效，一八八一年竟從所請。其中有的已大學畢業，有的尚在大學、中學肄業，回國後，多任職海關、海軍、路礦與其他洋務機關，最知名的有詹天佑、唐紹儀、梁敦彥。 六、西學的積極介紹 明清之際，為西學輸入的第一期。第二期肇始於咸、同年間。五口通商，傳教工作展開，新教士尤稱活躍，創辦報刊為其一。自一八五三年起，二十餘年間，重要期刊有在香港出版的《遐邇貫珍》（Chinese Serial），寧波的《中外新報》（Chinese and Foreign Gazette），上海的《六合叢談》（Shanghai Serial）、《中外雜誌》（Shanghai Miscellany）、《教會新報》（Church News），北京的《中西見聞錄》。《教會新報》後改為《萬國公報》（Review of the Times或The Globe Magazine），並增出《益智新錄》（A Miscellany of Useful Knowledge），專言科學。《中西見聞錄》易名《格致彙編》（Chinese Scientific Magazine）。中文日報，有香港的《中外新報》、《華字日報》，上海的《上海新報》，及日後成為中國第一大報的《申報》。報刊的宗旨，大都為通中外之情，述西學概況。不論果否是真正為中國人的利益，但對於促進中國人的西方了解，及啟發中國人的學術觀念，自有其作用，進一步為西方專著的介紹。 英美新教士在近代譯書事業上的地位，頗似明季的耶穌會士，重開風氣的為英人偉烈亞力，所成最多的為傅蘭雅。中國則以李善蘭、徐壽、華蘅芳等的貢獻為大。偉烈亞力長於天算之學，設墨海書館於上海（一八四七），致力於譯書印書。一八五三至一八五九年與李善蘭合譯《幾何原本》的後部及《談天》（Herschel，Outline of Astronomy，一八五九）。李又與艾約瑟合譯《重學》（Whewell，Mechanics，一八五八）。姜別利（William Gamble）主持的上海美華書館（一八六○）以出版為主。狄考文（Calvin W. Mateer）主持的登州文會館，傅蘭雅主持的上海格致書院（一八七四），林樂知主持的上海中西書院（一八八二），均兼事編譯科學圖書。合信、嘉約翰介紹的以關於生物、生理、醫學為主，慕維廉等介紹的以關於人文社會為要。一八七七年，在華新教傳教士舉行大會，以教會學校增多，決設益智書會（School and Textbook Series Committee），擴大纂撰各種教科書工作，以供高等小學及中學之需，由丁韙良、韋廉臣（Alexander Williamson）、狄考文、林樂知、傅蘭雅、利啟勒（R. Lechler）主持。十三年間，出版九十八種，以圖說、須知之類為主。韋廉臣、李提摩太（Timothy Richard）主持的同文書會（Chinese Book and Tract Society，一八四四）規模亦大。後改稱廣學會（Society for the Diffusion of Christian and General Knowledge Among the Chinese，又名Christian Literature Society）。 官方譯書首推江南製造總局，次為北京同文館。同文館為培植交涉人才而設，開館的次年（一八六三），丁韙良譯成《萬國律例》（Wheaton，Elements of International Law），由蒲安臣介紹於總署。前此赫德與總署大臣論及國際法的重要，恭親王恐外人別有用心，強中國以必行，頗為猶豫。經丁韙良解釋，知不無可採之處，即派人和他商酌潤色，一八六四年刊刻。是年普魯士與丹麥戰爭，普魯士兵船在大沽口扣留丹麥商船，總署援引該書，責其侵犯中國領海，普使認錯。證明公法確為有效。其後丁韙良遴選同文館高年級的優等生，由教習指導，續成《公法便覽》（Woolsey，Introduction to the Study of International Law）、《公法會通》（Hall，Treaties on International Law），《星軺指掌》（Der Martens，Guide Diplomatique）、《法國律例》（Code Napoleon）、《富國策》（Faweate，Political Economy）。同文館自設印書處（一八七三），出版各書，裝潢精美，僅分送各衙門，流布不廣。 製造局首重工藝，譯書以實用與理論科學為多，倡之者為曾國藩，實際為徐壽（一八一八至一八八四）。徐入曾國藩幕府之前，已與上海英國教士相識，博覽譯書，究心格致製造。深知西方工藝精良之原，悉本於專門之學，必須翻譯有用之書，以探索根底。曾國藩據以疏陳，謂洋人製器，出於算學，其中奧妙皆有圖說可尋，特以彼此文義扞格不通，故雖日習其器，究不明夫用器與製造之所以然。認為翻譯係製造根本，曾重刻《幾何原本》等書。李鴻章之設立廣方言館主要目的，在造就科學人才，期能閱讀、翻譯西書，亦曾刊印《重學》。一八六七年製造局創設翻譯學館，即由徐壽主之。廣方言館併入後，聘偉烈亞力、傅蘭雅、馬高溫（DJ MacGowan，美人）、林樂知、金楷理（CL Kreyer，美籍德人）參與其事，西人口譯，華人筆述。除徐壽外，知名者有華蘅芳、趙元益、王德均、李鳳苞、賈步緯、鍾天偉及徐壽之子建寅等。前後成書二百種，約計算學二十三種、工藝三十一種、物理十一種、地質礦冶十二種、天文九種、地理八種、軍事五十八種，關於化學的十種，最稱精博，多出徐壽之手。一八七一年開始出書，發行三萬一千餘冊，此後範圍擴及於醫藥、農業、理財、外交、法律、歷史。一八七三年復編印《西國近事彙編》。此外金陵製造局、北京海關總稅務司、天津水師學堂、武備學堂，亦兼事譯書。當時大都視天、算、聲、光、化、電為西學主體，英、美傳教團體及中外私人所譯，則內容比較廣泛。