Chapter 20 Chapter 18 Hitler's Fall

After the crushing defeat at Stalingrad and the retreat from the Caucasus, the Germans had lost any real hope of a decisive victory in Russia.The experience of 1941 and 1942 proved that there are many shortcomings in adopting an offensive strategy in an infinite space with limited forces.In 1943, the strength of the German army decreased even more, while that of the Russian army increased relatively.It is of course hopeless for the Germans to continue their strategic offensive when the balance of troops is already unfavorable. However, it is extremely difficult to organize a solid defense when the density of troops is not enough.Under this situation, if Germany switches to a defensive strategy, it will abandon the large tracts of land it has already captured, implement mobile defense, and take a series of retreat actions in order to weaken the assault force on the offensive side.Even if an offensive|defensive strategy is adopted, where first the defense is used to create favorable conditions for the subsequent counter-offensive, the land must also be given up.

If the German army can switch to a mobile defense strategy.There is hope for favorable results.Even in 1943 there were good reasons for this estimate.Experience has shown that the defensive German forces can inflict considerable losses on the attacking Russian forces with far less casualties of their own.Although the commanders of the Russian army have accumulated experience in conducting mobile operations, and the vast space provides them with favorable conditions for conducting such operations, there are still a series of other factors that force them to sometimes have to rush. It is not acceptable to adopt the method of brutal attack and hard attack.This is because the Russians instinctively hope to drive the aggressors out of their land as soon as possible, and the commanders of the Russian army naturally hope to show their heroic and firm character in front of Stalin.Therefore, it is not difficult for the German army to force the Russians to take a frontal offensive.Most strategists in Germany agreed with this view, believing that with a well-thought-out mobile defense plan, they could constantly consume Russian forces and destroy the Russian army's will to continue fighting.You can even get a good opportunity to launch a counter-offensive, which will bring about a fundamental change in the situation.

However, Hitler has been deeply poisoned by offensive thinking, and he absolutely refuses to listen to their advice.He madly believes that only offense is the best form of defense, and that a strong defense is always less effective than offense.Under the influence of this psychosis, despite the intensified Allied bombing of industrial targets, Hitler still refused any proposal to increase the production of fighter jets, and until June 1944, he refused to change this determination.There is another fact.When the advisers pointed out to him that the German reserve force was already very limited, it would be very dangerous to continue to hold the undefensible area occupied by the end of the winter campaign of 1942-1943 .However, Hitler not only rejected their proposal to retreat to the line of the Dnieper River, but firmly believed that an improvement in the summer of 1943 could change the entire situation.This summer offensive was also Hitler's last offensive enthusiasm before his downfall.

There is one thing worth mentioning here.In March 1943, Manstein suddenly launched a counter-attack in the direction of Kharkov, which stopped the continuous Russian counter-offensive from Stalingrad.Therefore, he suggested to Hitler that such a counterattack should be launched in another direction.Of course, this requires careful preparation in advance, and it is expected to lure the Russian army into a trap.At that time, on the eastern side of the German line, on the line of the Mius River between the North Donets and the Sea of ​​Azov, there was a deep forward projection.Therefore, it is likely to become the main target of the Russian army's spring offensive.Taking this situation into consideration, Manstein suggested that the defensive forces in this area should be thinner, and that when the Russian army attacks, they can gradually retreat to lure the enemy into a trap.Afterwards, the German army concentrated all possible mobilized forces and carried out a counterattack from the Kiev area to the northern flank of the Russian army. The purpose was to sweep the entire southern front of the Russian army and surround them all in a trap.

Although Hitler didn't want to give up the Donbass region, which has a lot of industrial and mineral resources, but his appetite for this plan was too much, and he thought it was too bold.So, the Germans adopted another plan.They wanted to disperse and confuse the Russians before they launched their spring offensive.The planned assault was expected to be directed at the base of the wide salient in the Kursk region, since this salient, between Belgorod and Orel, juts out just inside the German lines.The assault took the form of a pincer: the Fourth Tank Army of Manstein's Army Group South (formerly Army Group Don) formed the right wing of the envelopment, and the Ninth Army of Kruger's Army Group Center became the left wing.In this regard, Manstein once insisted that if this plan must be adopted, the offensive must be launched in early May, that is, when the spring mud has just dried and the Russian side has no time to adjust the deployment of troops.However, the commander of the Ninth Army, Mudel, advocated suspending the operation and waiting for the arrival of a large number of tank reinforcements.Hitler took his advice and postponed the date of the offensive until June, and in the end it was delayed until July 5th.This is a very meaningful illustration that time and power are really two opposing factors.The attack that concentrated a large number of troops was carried out too late, and its weight was relatively reduced. In terms of the results of the battle, it was not as good as the attack launched in time, because it could receive the effect of a surprise attack.

After a long time, Hitler himself had doubts and fears about whether this offensive could be successful.However, he was unwilling to accept the strategic retreat plan, so he was finally restrained by Zettler's offensive ideas and felt unable to stop.Zettler is Halder's heir, he strongly advocates the use of offensive methods, and always wants to use offensive methods to stop the Russian offensive. This time, the Russian High Command showed relatively good judgment and correctly estimated the situation. Before the German army turned to attack, it kept restraining itself and did not make any attacks.In this way, the Russians instead deceived the Germans into a trap and thereby increased their victories on the battlefield.Sensing that the Germans were preparing to attack and guessing their intentions, they blocked all the most dangerous roads to the Kursk salient, laid minefields in depth, and withdrew their main body.As a result, after the German army launched an offensive, not only failed to pocket the Russian army, but instead plunged itself into a quagmire.The right-wing group of the German army had made considerable progress, breaking through the two front positions of the Russian army and destroying a large number of tanks.However, Mudel's left-wing group has been staying in place, not advancing at all.As a result of this fruitless attack, the Germans overran their defenses and came under a powerful Russian counterattack.After the Russian army turned to the counter-offensive, it first broke through the German defense line north of Orel, thus shaking the enemy's entire defense system.As a result, Manstein was ordered to stop the offensive and draw out several tank divisions to support Kruger.In this way, the weakened defense line of Manstein himself was also broken by the Russian army.The entire process of this operation is largely similar to Pétain's mobile defense and his counterattack in the Second Battle of the Marne.That counterattack was a decisive turning point in changing the course of World War I.

Although the Germans held back the advance of the Russians and prevented them from developing victories, as they had done at the Battle of the Marne in 1918, the Russians thwarted their plans and expanded the scale of the campaign.The nature and speed of this Russian operation recalled the counter-offensive operations of the Allied forces on the Western Front in 1918.At that time, a series of assaults were carried out on different parts of the entire front; when the speed of the attack in one direction gradually slowed down due to the increasing resistance of the enemy, the attack in that direction was temporarily stopped and turned to the enemy. The attack is carried out on the other side; the purpose of each assault is the same, and the result of the previous assault always creates convenient conditions for the next assault; the various assaults are closely linked, and they are mutually related in time and space. cooperative.The actions of the Russians caused the German High Command to repeat the mistakes of 1918. On the one hand, it had to rush its limited reserves to the point of attack, and on the other hand, it was restrained so that they could not attack. Failure to send reserves to the site of attack in time.As a result, the German army lost its freedom of action and faced the threat of a gradual reduction or even complete collapse of the reserve force.The Russians adopted this strategy to gradually paralyze the German military machine.

For any army with an absolute superiority in strength, it is natural to adopt the Russian method of fighting.The Red Army in 1943 was just like the Allied Forces fighting on the Western Front in 1918. If the horizontal roads in a theater were not well developed, it was impossible for the attackers to quickly expand their victories in a certain direction. The above method of operations is particularly advantageous when the reserves are transferred from one sector to another.With this method, every time a breakthrough is made in a new direction, the losses of the troops will of course be greater than if the breakthrough is only made in one direction and the result is expanded in its depth.Moreover, the results obtained in each individual direction will not have any decisive significance.However, when the results of all the various areas are combined, the effect is quite remarkable.It's just that the side that adopts this method must have a sufficient number of troops to be able to withstand the intense test for a fairly long period of time.

In the autumn of 1943, the situation of the Russian offensive was like a raging tide, rushing towards a 1,600-kilometer-long embankment.In September of that year, the Russian army reached Kiev and the Great River Bend area and captured several strongholds leading to the Dnieper River. German troops were forced to withdraw from the Kuban and the western part of the Caucasus.The troops retreating from the Caucasus attempted to move through the Crimea to the southern section of the Soviet-German front, that is, to the area between the Great Bend of the Dnieper River and the Sea of ​​Azov.However, before these reinforcements transferred from the Caucasus arrived, the Russian army broke through the German defense line in that area, and closely pursued the panic-stricken German army, which was retreating steadily, all the way to the lower reaches of the Dnieper River. .Thus completely isolating the German troops blocked in the Crimea.In October, the Russian army crossed the Dnieper River in the northern part of the river bend and penetrated deeply into the German defensive positions.Although the German army finally blocked the breakthrough, the Allied forces reported the breakthrough in advance in their own report, so there were rumors about the general collapse of the German army at that time, but the facts were not accurate, and they had not yet reached the general level. The point of collapse is only that its defensive position has been severely weakened.

Hitler had insisted on holding the area on the south side of the Dnieper salient. His purpose was to firmly control Nikopol, an important manganese ore producing area, because it is of great significance to the German military industry.As a result, there was a contradiction between economic needs and strategic requirements, prompting Hitler to continue to take risks.In order to keep these manganese resources of the Russians, the German army paid a heavy price.At that time, the situation of the German army was very tense, and there were dangers on the entire front.If the opponent launches an attack at a certain point, even with limited troops, it may lead to the collapse of the entire line.

Every time the German army had to hold on to a location to carry out Hitler's orders, the price was often high.The weaker the defensive force is, the more it is necessary to adopt mobile defensive methods.Otherwise, the stronger attacking side will be able to use space as its ally and take a flanking approach to gain a decisive advantage. In early October 1943, the Russian army captured two bridgehead positions on the opposite bank of the Dnieper River, one north of Kiev and one south of Kiev.The former was gradually enlarged, and by the time the attack was launched a month later, it had become a good starting position.Later, relying on this position, the Russian army regained Kiev, and quickly expanded westward, developing victory.Within a week, Russian General Vatudin's troops had reached the Zhytomir and Korostian railway junctions, 130 kilometers from the Dnieper River. Manstein had no reserves left in his hands, but he was still out of danger.He began a rapid retreat, luring the Russians deep, thus creating favorable conditions for a counter-assault on his flank.In order to organize the implementation of this counter-assault, Manteuffel, a young and promising general of the German army, collected all the remaining tank units he could find.Although the strength of this counterattack is limited, its effect is quite huge.This is so, on the one hand, because the Russian army's line of communication extends too far, and on the other hand, it is also due to the suddenness of the assault itself.As a result, the Russian army was forced to give up the two hub stations they had captured, Zhitomyr and Koluostian. Since then, Manstein has received reinforcements from the West, so he considers organizing a larger counterattack.But his plan did not materialize, as Vadudin quickly regained his strength and time was running out.Although the Russian army was forced to retreat, its flanks were oppressed by Manstein, and it had to give up a large area of ​​land west of the Dnieper River, but Manstein's counterattack was not as dangerous as it was first seen.By the beginning of December, this counter-offensive naturally and gradually came to a halt.After Manstein consumed the reinforcements he had obtained, he had no energy left to organize effective resistance to the next Russian attack.At this time, Hitler repeatedly rejected Manstein's proposal for a longer retreat. Although the area of ​​the Kiev salient that Vadudin retreated to has shrunk, it is still quite broad.So, on Christmas Eve, he started his attack again from there.A week later, Vatutin recaptured Zhitomir and Kolosfield.On January 4, further crossed the pre-war Polish border.Vatudin's troops, attacking on the left flank, reached the area of ​​the South Bug River near Vinnytsia, thereby threatening the main transverse railway line between Odessa and Warsaw.Here, Manstein organized a new counter-assault, but Vadudin had enough troops at this time, and immediately repelled the counter-assault.At that time, Hitler was still stubbornly asking the German army to stick to the Dnieper River defense line near Kiev, which made the Russian army gain some benefits.Vatudin acted in concert with Konev, who flanked the Korsun-Shevchenko salient, cutting off and encircling ten German divisions in a pincer fashion.Although Hitler gave repeated orders, asking the troops to stand firm and not to retreat, some people still broke through and escaped. As a result of such a blow, a huge gap finally appeared in the German defense line.This is very beneficial to the Russian army's future advances.The other armies in Ukraine then started a coordinated assault operation and completed their respective roundabout maneuvers one after another.On the northern flank, the Germans were forced to withdraw from Lutsk and Rivne; on the southern flank, the Nikopol region, together with its manganese resources, had to be abandoned. On March 4, 1944, the Russian army launched a new general offensive.The general offensive was directed by Zhukov, and because Vatudin was already ill, Zhukov took his place.Zhukov's offensive started from the Shepetovka area.His troops advanced fifty kilometers in the first twenty-four hours, and in two days they cut off the main railway line from Odessa to Warsaw.This Russian offensive detoured the German defense area from the flanks and reached the line of the South Bug River.At the same time, Malinovsky advanced along the Black Sea coast and reached Nikolayev.Between these two ends, Konev carried out an assault from the Uman region, reaching the Nambug on March 12, the Transnistria on the 18th, and crossing the river the next day. the river.The fact that the Russian army crossed such a wide river at such a fast speed can be regarded as a prominent example in the history of warfare.Then, Zhukov continued to advance from the Tarnopil (now Ternopil) area, attacking in the direction of the Carpathians. The Germans responded to this threat by immediately occupying Hungary.Obviously, they took such a step to secure the mountain defense line of the Carpathians.The reason why the Germans need to stick to this natural danger is to prevent the Russian army from rushing into the Central European Plain on the one hand, and on the other hand to regard it as the main hub for long-term defense of the Balkans. The Carpathian Mountains extend southward and become the Transylvanian Alps, also known as the Southern Carpathians, which is a very strong natural line of defense.Among them, there are a few mountain defiles, which are very convenient for the defenders to organize defense.And between the coast of the Black Sea and the mountains of Falksani lies a broad flat land, about two hundred kilometers wide.However, the eastern half of it is the Danube Delta, which is full of lakes and marshes, so the real danger area is only the channel between Galatz and Foksciani, which is about a hundred kilometers wide. As early as early April, there were signs that the German army was about to retreat to this rear line of defense, because Konev's troops had crossed the Prut River and entered Romania.At the same time, the German army in the south was also driven out of Odessa.In the Crimea, the Russian army carried out a surprise attack on the central side, and finally wiped out all the German troops stationed there and regained the territory.After the Russian army crossed the Prut River, the German army stopped their attack and prevented them from continuing to penetrate into Romania, thus preserving Romania's oil resources for a long time.However, five months later, the Germans made themselves suffer for this achievement.It inspired Hitler to keep his forces in the forward position east of the Carpathians, also at a great distance from Galatz and the Fokschani pass, which left the Germans completely exposed. In the north, southwest of Tarnopol, the German army also used a counter-assault to stop Zhukov's attempt to cross the mountain pass in the Carpathians. However, this counter-assault was quickly repelled by the Russian army.Further north, on the coast of the Baltic Sea, the Russian army also launched an offensive in mid-January 1944, lifting the German blockade of Leningrad and continuing to expand westward.However, the Germans still made an organized retreat, shortening and straightening their defensive line, defending the line from Narva through Pskov and to the south.The front of the entire line of defense is about 200 kilometers, of which 145 kilometers are two large lakes (Lake Chud and Lake Pskov).Between Pskov and the Pripyat swamp, the German line of defense is still based on the two fortress cities of Vitebsk and Orsha.At the end of September 1943, the Russian army began to attack the defense line. However, their direct attacks and flanking detours were repeatedly repulsed by the German army.For the next nine months, until July 1944, this line remained an effective barrier for the Germans. At the end of April 1944, the Russian front stabilized for a time.The Red Army regained large swaths of territory, especially in the south, and even more lost ground.However, whenever the Russian army launched a pincer attack, the German army was often able to escape from the encirclement, escape from the trap, and get out of the dangerous situation safely.The total number of captured Germans was insignificant in proportion to the scale of the Russian offensive.However, the accumulated attrition of the German army in a series of difficult battles finally had serious consequences later.Nevertheless, Hitler's sense of reality grew duller.He actually dismissed a generation of wizards Manstein, and stubbornly believed that under the difficult situation at that time, it was still necessary to carry out a defensive defense with every inch of land, and denied the necessity of taking technical maneuvers. During the past nine months, the situation facing Germany had been exacerbated by the entry of British and American Allied forces into Europe from the south.On the western battlefield, the Allied forces first captured Sicily, and then, in early September 1943, Italy announced its surrender.After the collapse of Germany, its main ally, there was a gap in the southern wall of its European fortress.Although the terrain of the Italian peninsula limited the progress of the Allied forces, such a large gap had already had a considerable restraint effect on the Germans, forcing them to deploy a considerable number of troops for cover.In addition, due to the collapse of Italy, Germany also had to increase its troops to the Balkans. The collapse of Italy also made things worse for Germany itself, as Allied bombers carried out aerial raids farther and farther.Moreover, the armed forces of the United States are growing rapidly, and the power of the Allied Air Forces is also becoming stronger. The Allied air raids on Germany aimed at crippling its industrial system.From the point of view of grand strategy, this can be regarded as an indirect route operation, because the destruction of the enemy's industry also destroys his combat ability.The Allied Strategic Air Forces could have overwhelmed German resistance more quickly had their raids been better planned, attacking more enemy supply bases and less bombing of populous cities and settlements , leading to early paralysis.Of course, the massive bombing of civilian targets by Allied bombers also played its own role, which finally gradually paralyzed Germany's military strength.The destruction of the lines of communication was also an important factor that weakened the German army's ability to resist the Allied offensive. An important reason for the smooth landing of the Allied forces in Sicily in July 1943 was that they captured a large number of prisoners in Tunisia.Otherwise, the German army can transfer most of its troops to Sicily to strengthen the defense.The disastrous defeat of the German army in Tunisia not only dealt a serious mental blow to the Italian defenders in Sicily, but also fundamentally shook Mussolini's dominance in Italy.The Germans were afraid that Italy would collapse or surrender immediately, so they did not dare to send a large number of troops to reinforce Sicily's defense. They were worried that after the southward transfer of troops, they would be stuck there and could never be drawn back.Had it not been for these circumstances, the Allies should have regretted all the more that they had not been able to seize Sicily while the enemy was still in Tunisia, relying on fortified positions.For the capture of Sicily, even if there are favorable conditions, there are still many difficulties and a lot of effort to actually occupy it.Although the German troops stationed in Sicily are weak in number, they are no longer like Africa, and the Allied navy and air force cannot cut them off. The area occupied by Germany in southern Europe is too vast, starting from the Pyrenees Peninsula in the west and extending to Macedonia in the east.This allowed the Allies to rely on their powerful amphibious forces to carry out a wide range of strategic actions to attract the attention of the enemy.The main strategic advantage of the Allies was the free choice of targets for successive assaults.Concentrating their forces in the north of French West Africa, they threatened Sicily and Sardinia at the same time.If the main assault of the Allies is directed to the west of Italy, then they can choose one of two lines of attack in the future: one directed to the industrial areas of northern Italy, and the other directed to the German occupied areas in southern France.If the Allied forces landed on the coast of the Adriatic Sea instead, they could develop their offensive in the north of Italy or the west of the Balkans.If the Allied forces attack the Aegean coast again, it will pose a danger to the German-occupied Greece, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria and Romania. The development of subsequent events proved that the strategic freedom of the Allies to choose the direction of the assault, coupled with the actions they took to deceive the enemy in their plans, confused the German High Command.They could not tell where the Allied forces would attack besides Sicily: what about Sardinia?Or attack Greece?Some people even estimate that the Allied forces are likely to land in mainland Italy or southern France.Aerial reconnaissance reported that Allied ships had appeared in various waters along the Mediterranean coast, which made the Germans even more suspicious. On July 10, 1943, Allied forces successfully landed in Sicily.At that time, on the 110-kilometer-long front, several locations were selected to carry out landing at the same time. This approach played a better role in guaranteeing.This is the same situation as the Allied forces landed on the Gallipoli Peninsula (in Turkey) in 1915, and the width of the front is roughly the same.The landing of the Allied forces in Sicily put the German and Italian armies in a difficult situation. They could not figure out where the main assault direction of the other side was. Therefore, at the critical moment when the enemy army landed, the German army was unable to counterattack in time.This situation is very beneficial to the British Eighth Army's offensive on the east coast of the island, making them less obstructed and smashing the enemy's resistance more quickly.The Axis Army Command once made a wrong estimate and focused its defense on the western coast of Sicily, because it is the closest to the Allied North African base and has more ports. It believed that the main force of the Allied forces would definitely be in He landed there, and as a result his troops suffered a great loss.The Allies directed their main assault on the southeastern coast of the island, thus giving their assault the characteristic of an indirect route strategically.After landing on land, Montgomery's troops advanced 65 kilometers northward along the east coast in four days, almost halfway to the Strait of Messina without hindrance, and were only stopped when they reached the outskirts of Catania. The Germans blocked. General Patton's U.S. Seventh Army also successfully landed and consolidated the landing field west of Montgomery's force.On land, his army began to advance westward, then turned northward, crossed the island, and reached Palermo.Much like a sleight of hand on a football field, the Germans were bewitched.The general confusion among the enemy was compounded by the fact that the Allied attack threatened both the objectives of Palermo and Messina. The resistance of the Italian army collapsed at the beginning of this battle, and as a result, the Mussolini regime collapsed immediately. After Italy withdrew from the war, the burden of defending Sicily fell entirely on the shoulders of the German army.At that time, they had only two divisions stationed there, and one-third of them were newly recruited recruits.The German High Command relied on such a force to resist the Allied landing in Sicily.There were more than twelve divisions of the Allied forces preparing to land, among which seven divisions were placed in the first echelon to land.Although the German army had only two weaker divisions and had lost air cover, they still held out for more than a month, blocking the Allied advance on Sicily.Later, these German troops safely crossed the Strait of Messina under the cover of anti-aircraft fire and withdrew to the Italian mainland.The successful withdrawal of the German army across the Strait of Messina not only shows that they have only tenacious fighting qualities, but also reflects that the Allied forces' offensive methods are becoming more and more direct.Of course, there are also factors that are quite complicated here. After Patton's forces occupied Palermo and wiped out the remnants of western Sicily, they then turned eastward to cooperate with Montgomery's operation and launched an attack on Messina at the same time.The northeast corner of Sicily is a triangle, all of which are mountains.Therefore, the German army could not only use favorable terrain conditions to organize defense, but also gradually shrink the front as the troops retreated to the top of the triangle, so that the density of its defensive forces continued to increase.At the same time, the Allied forces encountered more and more difficulties due to the continuous shrinking of the offensive front and the excessive strength of their own forces.Regarding the characteristics of strategic actions, this is an important lesson with a negative meaning.As for other lessons, it will be exposed in the next stage. invade italy The Allies captured Sicily and gained a foothold.This is a good springboard for attacking the European continent.With this foothold, their threat to the European continent was even more imminent and immediate.On the one hand, they can speed up the concentration of troops, and on the other hand, they can freely choose the direction of the assault.They had several routes to choose from: the most obvious and direct route was to attack the toe of the Apennine boot; in addition, a short jump could be made, either to attack central Italy, or to Sardinia, or to The heel of the Apennine boots.If the attack was carried out to the heel of the boot, then the troops would be outside the cover of the fighter planes and it would be impossible to stop the German air attack.However, if you really choose that direction, it may make the enemy the most unpredictable.Because before this, all offensive campaigns by the Allied forces were carried out under the cover of fighter planes, and their actions have always been cautious.If the original rules are suddenly not followed this time, it may have a surprising effect on the enemy.The terrain on the heel of the Apennine boots is also the most favorable for the rapid advance of the mechanized troops, where they can move north along the Adriatic coast.Moreover, after landing successfully on the heels of Italy, it can pose a threat to the Balkans and central Italy at the same time.As a result, the German High Command once again faced the difficult situation of judging the Allied offensive line.From a strategic point of view, the heel of the Apennine boots may become the heel of the German Axili, which is a key point.However, the Allied Joint Command was determined to concentrate its main force in a direction where it could use fighter planes to cover operations.It was not until later, in the last period, that a landing force was assembled for auxiliary landings on the heels of the boots.The base force of the Allies, the entire Eighth Army, landed at the toe of the boot.Later, the Fifth Army was formed by a mixture of British and American troops, and a larger-scale landing was carried out in the Salerno area south of Naples (now Naples).The Fifth Army was commanded by American General Clark. The Allies encountered many difficulties in carrying out their plans to invade Italy.This was not only because of the directness of its strategic line, but also because politicians insisted on Italy's unconditional surrender.Most of the leading men in Italy wanted peace, wanted a peace treaty, but were unwilling to accept the humiliation of unconditional surrender, the responsibility of having no guarantee of self-defense.After the defeat of the Italian army in Sicily, the Italian mainland was already facing a direct threat. They had no choice but to overthrow Mussolini and start peace negotiations.However, this requires a considerable amount of time to make arrangements.Due to the time delay, military operations were temporarily suspended, which gave the Germans a month's respite to take emergency contingency measures. On September 3, the Allied forces began to cross the Strait of Messina and were expected to land at the toe of the Apennine boot.The landings were preceded by a massive but fruitless bombardment campaign, as the Germans had deployed only one division there and had retreated north a few days before the Allies began to cross the sea.Immediately after the Allied forces landed, they marched into Italy, but encountered no serious resistance.However, their progress was very slow.On the one hand, this was due to the harsh terrain conditions, which made it difficult to pass, and on the other hand, it was also due to their excessive caution.In this way, the Allied forces landing at the toe of their boots actually did not have much support for the main force landing in the Salerno area. On September 9, 1943, Allied forces landed at Salerno.It was the day after Italy announced its surrender.Even so, the German troops stationed there did not suffer much shock, and they carried out a counterattack against the Allied forces.During the course of six full days, the Allied forces were in a very difficult and dangerous situation. General Clark later elaborated on the nature of this fact.He said: The Germans analyzed the situation at the time and speculated that the Allied forces were preparing for a second landing.And taking into account that this landing must be carried out under the cover of fighter aviation.由於盟軍的殲擊機要以西西里島為基地，其作戰半徑的最遠點只能達到那坡利，因此德國人估計到，盟軍很有可能在那是登陸。於是，他們便把自己的部隊集中在那坡利｜薩勒諾地區。這樣一來，我們便同德軍的基本兵力遭遇上了。 我打了著重點的這幾個字是有特別意義的。它們表明，敵人已經考慮到，盟軍在制定登陸作戰計畫時必然要以掩護工具的能力為依據。戰役的結局也表明，凡是在敵人可以預期到的方向上採取行動，其結果總是受到限制的。盟軍向著敵人密集的地點實行登陸，不僅在有生力量方面遭到了重大損失，而且喪失了時間，雖然勉強地擺脫了覆滅的厄運，但也走到了慘敗的邊緣。薩勒諾的登陸作戰又一次證實了這樣一個歷史教訓：對於一支軍隊來說，把力量集中到敵人早已料想對方必將來攻的地段上，是極端危險的，因為這樣敵人可以及時作好準備，易於把進攻者擊敗。一九四三年，德國駐義大利軍的總司令是凱賽林元帥。他手中總共只有七個師的兵力，不僅要防衛亞平寧半島的南部和中部，而且要抽出部分兵力來鎮壓過去的同盟者，去解除意軍的武裝。 與薩勒諾地區的主要登陸形成對比，盟軍在亞平寧大靴後跟部位所進行的輔助登陸，卻沒有遭到德軍的任何抵抗，因而使登陸部隊很快就攻佔了義大利的兩個優良海港塔蘭托和布林的西。於是，盟軍沿著海岸向北挺進，道路暢通無阻，直奔鐵路樞紐重鎮福賈及其鄰近的機場開去。當時，德軍駐守塔蘭托和福賈之間廣大地區的兵力，總共只有一個傘兵師，而且還不滿員。 然而，盟軍在靴跟部登陸的兵力也只是一個師，即英軍的第一空降｜傘降師。該師是倉促地受領這一任務的，勿匆忙忙地從突尼斯的休息營地乘船到來。因為運輸船並不多，而且又是臨時調用，所以，他們在義大利上陸時，既無坦克，也無炮兵，僅有一門榴彈炮，幾乎完全沒有摩托化運輸工具。簡單一句話，他們缺乏一切最必要的技術裝備，因而無法充分利用對於他們非常有利的條件。 大約過了十四天以後，盟軍才又派出一支部隊在義大利東海岸布林的西以北的下一個港口巴里實行登陸。這支部隊中包括了一個裝甲旅。他們向北挺進，沒有遇到什麼抵抗，並且一舉佔領了福賈。這支沿著亞得里亞海岸北進的盟軍，前進到相當深遠的距離以後，便開始威脅到西海岸的德軍的後方。於是，那些在盟軍第五集團軍當面防守著通向那坡利山地和接近路的德軍，也就被迫向後撤退了。十月一日，盟軍開進了那坡利。這時距離開始登陸已經三個星期了。然而，德軍對於危險局勢的敏感程度，比盟軍所估計的還要靈敏得多。他們頑強地控制著義大利的其餘部分（即那坡利至福賈一線以北地區），解散了義大利的部隊，從而消除了盟軍方面由於義大利投降而獲得的利益。 從此以後，盟軍向亞平寧半島北部的推進，不得不自己開闢道路，而且愈來愈困難。德國人在開始的時候認為，自己無法長期阻滯盟軍向羅馬的推進，因而只在北面等待著盟軍的到來，可是，他們在後來完全明白了，由於正面太窄和地形難以通行，盟軍擠壓在一起，其作戰行動自然難以施展，以致在使用兵力方面不能不受到限制，竟至喪失了由於登陸作戰所帶來的靈活機動的特點。德國人看到了這種情況，也就大膽起來，開始往南派遣援軍去支援凱賽林元帥。 第五集團軍的進攻，發展到那坡利以北三十公里處的沃耳土爾諾河一線時，曾被德軍暫時阻住了。以後，他們進到卡西諾，在沃耳土爾諾河以北三十公里的加里格雅諾河一線，又被德軍完全阻止了。在一九四三年的十一｜十二兩個月裡，盟軍進行了一連串的突擊，但始終未能突破那道天然屏障。這時，在東海岸實施進攻的第八集團軍，也在桑格羅河一線被德軍阻住。這裡距離福賈已有一百二十公里。後來，盟軍雖然渡過了該河，但是很快就被德軍封鎖，竟至寸步難移。直到一九四三年底，也就是登陸四個月以後，盟軍只不過從薩勒諾北進了一百一十公里，而且其大部分路程都是在九月分走過的。在九月以後的幾個月裡，盟軍的前進速度簡直慢到了極點，人們甚至創造了一個叫做寸進的名詞來加以形容。這樣，入侵義大利的作戰有如老牛吃草一樣地緩慢，咬下一口以後就慢慢地加以咀嚼。 根據過去長期的經驗來看，採取這種戰術有時也能獲得成功，但是通常的結果都不免使人失望。盟軍在義大利進行的這個戰役，對於這條規律也不例外。它又一次提供了例證，說明在狹窄的地段上採取直接進攻的方法，一般都要導致反面的結果。 如果沒有足夠廣大的空間用來進行機動，那麼，單有兵力方面的優勢是遠遠不夠的。亞平寧半島的寬度，在許多地段差不多只有一百六十公里，而且大部分空間都為縱橫起伏的山地充塞著。由於德軍最高統帥部已決定在南部增加他們的賭注，因而那裡的防禦隨即獲得加強，這樣就不可避免地減慢了盟軍在義大利腿部的北進速度，使其在戰略上變成了爬行。 一九四四年初，盟軍企圖從海上進行一個新的機動，即在敵人後方漫長的海岸線上再選擇一個地點實行登陸。一月二十二日，一支受命在敵軍側翼採取行動的部隊，在安齊奧附近完成了這個任務。該地位於羅馬以南約四十公里。盟軍登陸時，那裡只有德軍二個營的兵力，因此，登陸部隊只要勇敢地向前躍進，不僅可以搶佔掩護著通向羅馬的門戶阿爾班山地，甚至一舉攻佔羅馬城也不是難事。然而，盟軍卻不是這樣設想的。他們認為，德軍將對此登陸立即作出抗擊的反應，因此，便把主要的注意力用來鞏固登陸場。他們指望，敵人將從南面抽調援軍，這樣，在正面實施進攻的盟軍主力就可利用敵人抵抗削弱的機會實施突破。可是，德軍的行動並沒有符合他們的願望。 開始，德軍並未打算在安齊奧地區組織抵抗。這一事實明朗化以後，盟軍司令亞歷山大便指令那裡的登陸部隊迅速向內地挺進，但登陸部隊的指揮官卻沒有認真執行他的命令。這位指揮官過分地小心謹慎了，他拖延了一個多星期的時間，沒有採取有效的進攻行動。這樣一來，凱賽林便獲得了機會，終於把預備隊調到安齊奧地區來了。在此同時，德軍也在卡西諾地區的正面上阻止了盟軍主力的進攻。一九四四年二月三日，在安齊奧登陸十三天以後，德軍對這個登陸場發起了猛烈的反攻。儘管德軍的進攻終於被擋住，但盟軍的登陸場卻大大地縮小了。它的窘境使人們聯想到一個巨大規模的集中營，正像第一次世界大戰中德國人給協約國軍在薩洛尼卡登陸場所取的綽號那樣。不過，人們也還記得，一九一八年的那個笑話，後來卻起了變化，因為協約國軍終於從薩洛尼卡陣地上衝出來了，從而給德軍造成了威脅，促使德國開始走向總的崩潰。這正好證實了一句古話：誰笑在最後，就笑得最好！ 直到一九四四年五月，盟軍在義大利境內的進攻才又在較大規模上恢復起來。這次進攻是一個大規模計畫的組成部分。當時，盟軍方面擬訂了堅決打擊德軍的所謂偉大計畫，其中規定，義大利境內的進攻應成為預期發起的第一個突擊。緊接這個突擊一個月以後，集結在英國南部的盟軍，就要橫渡英吉利海峽而進入法國本土，開始進行諾曼第戰役。在義大利實施進攻和在法國實施登陸以前，盟軍都進行了威力強大的空中襲擊，其目的是破壞敵人的補給運輸線。 按照亞歷山大將軍的計畫，在義大利戰役的第一階段，要從卡西諾的兩側同時發動新的進攻。這也就是前些時候盟軍進攻被阻的地方。為了確保這次戰役的勝利，李斯將軍的第八集團軍擴大了自己的作戰正面，並把主力從亞得里亞海方面轉移過來，緊靠著克拉克將軍第五集團軍的側翼，以便協同攻擊古斯達夫防線這個築壘工事的西段。進攻是在五月十一日二十三時開始的，當前任務是攻佔能夠控制通向敵人築壘地區接近路的那幾條山間通道，因為這正是通到利里河河谷的狹長出口。 為攻佔東面凱羅山地中的通道而實施的進攻，雖然經過好幾天的艱苦戰鬥，但並沒有多大進展。不過，在卡西諾與地中海海岸之間這個地段上，盟軍卻同時在幾個點上插進了古斯達夫防線，打開了一些小裂口。其中成效比較大的，是儒安將軍所指揮的法屬殖民地軍。該軍是專門經過山地作戰訓練的。他們沿著一條難以通行的道路越過了奧雲西山地，其進攻產生了出敵不意的奇襲效果。這支軍隊經過整整七十二小時的推進以後，翻越了奧雲西出，再行軍約十公里，爬上了能夠俯瞰利里河河谷的高地，從而伸出一把砍刀，對防守古斯達夫防線的德軍構成了威脅，削弱了他們的抵抗力。這一態勢給第八集團軍的英國部隊帶來了不少好處，使他們在向谷地推進時減少了很多氣力。於是，他們順利地繞過了卡西諾，並於十八日攻占了該城。同時，這也給沿著海岸進攻的美軍起了開路作用。 五月二十三日，安齊奧陣地上的盟軍部隊一齊發起總攻，從他們所固守的登陸場上開始實施突擊。當時，封鎖這個登陸場的德軍部隊，大部分調到南方去了，盟軍正好利用了這個弱點。到了第三天，德軍已經不堪承受壓力，再也不能守住防線。盟軍突破防線以後，德軍沒有預備隊，無法阻止對方擴張戰果。於是，盟軍繼續前進，投著阿爾班山地和南部敵軍主力的交通線進行夾擊。 當盟軍在安齊奧地區進行突擊時，第八集團軍也在利里河谷地開始向德軍的最後一道陣地實行強攻。在發起進攻的頭一天，加拿大軍即突破了這個陣地。第二天，事態已很明顯，德軍在各個方向都開始向後撤退。安齊奧方向的危險局面加強以後，德軍的後撤速度更為加快。幾天以後，德軍藉以直接撤向羅馬的第六號公路被盟軍切斷，於是，他們改向東北方向退走，沿著險惡的山路實施後撤。這時，他們的行軍縱隊缺乏空中掩護，很容易遭受空中襲擊。 儘管還有相當數量的部隊經過這條途徑逃出了陷阱，但是德軍已經沒有能力守衛羅馬城了。達時，亞歷山大將軍把所有一切可能集中的兵力調到了自己的左翼，以便摧垮正在防守阿爾班山地的另一個德軍集團。經過一個星期的頑強苦戰，德軍的抵抗力終於被摧毀了。盟軍佔領了阿爾班山地。這個戰略性屏障被攻克以後，盟軍隨即淹沒了羅馬周圍的平原，並於六月五日清晨佔領了羅馬城。九個月以前，當義大利政府宣佈投降時，這座城市本來已是盟軍方面的囊中之物，可是，一直等到今天，目的才算真正達到。 進攻法國之戰 攻佔羅馬以後的第二天，盟軍開始了對諾曼第的登陸。這是戰爭中最有戲劇性的一個事件，也是具有決定意義的事件。以英國為基地的英美遠征軍部隊，由於受到惡劣氣候的影響，其航渡海峽的行動曾經一再延遲。他們開始航渡時，風力仍很強烈，因而其行動是擔著很大風險的。不過，這也有利於其行動的突然性。艾森豪威爾將軍所作的這個冒險決定，從結果上看來是正確的，也增加了行動的奇襲效果。 盟軍這次登陸，時間是在六月六日的早晨，地點選在塞納灣內從岡到瑟堡之間的海岸線上。在登陸的前夕，曾向登陸地段的兩個側翼投送了強大的空降部隊。 在入侵的準備階段，盟軍曾持續不斷地對敵人的交通線進行強烈的空中襲擊，其目的是要癱瘓敵人，使其無法把預備隊調到上陸地區。 曾經有許多徵候，表明同盟國軍隊可能在這個地區實行登陸，可是，德國人對於這次登陸，仍然是感到意外的。他們不能夠把位在塞納河東岸的預備隊及時調到上陸地區來。其所以如此，一方面是因為盟軍很巧妙地散佈了假情報，另一方面，也由於德國人抱著一種先入為主的想法，以為盟軍將會直線式地渡越海峽，而且是選擇最短的一條線路。本來，盟軍為了獲得最大限度的空中掩護，總是不惜採取非常謹慎的行動。他們在義大利戰役中就是這樣作的，結果使得目標的選擇和進攻的發展都受到限制。可是，這一次的作法不同，竟使他們在無意中獲得了頗大的利益。因為德國人已經產生了偏見，認為盟軍方面仍將採取謹慎的路線。而且，德國人還有一個錯誤的估計，沒有料到盟軍的航空兵部隊能夠炸毀塞納河上的橋樑。這又給他們造成了致命的創傷。 早在三月分，希特勒開始對英美兩國同盟軍在英國的部署情況進行分析。他不受總參謀部各種觀點的影響，曾經考慮到盟軍有可能以諾曼第為其登陸地點。當時，德軍駐法國北部海岸的前線司令官是隆美爾，他也作出了與希特勒見解相同的結論。可是，德軍西線總司令是隆德斯特。他卻認為，盟軍最可能實行登陸的地段是第厄普至加來之間的海岸。隆德斯特所以堅持這個看法，一方面是因為盟軍在前幾次進行登陸作戰時，都曾最大限度地利用空中掩護；另一方面，則把盟軍對諾曼地登陸所作的若干準備活動，看成是一種欺騙措施；還有最主要的一點，就是認為那裡距離最短，易於達到目的。由於這些原因，隆德斯特堅持，盟軍只有在第厄普和加來之間的海岸實施登陸，才是最合理的。他的這種見解，從正統派戰略家的觀點來看，未嘗不合情理。所以，按照隆德斯特的看法，盟軍方面不會有採取突然行動的可能性，甚至也不會有避重就輕的打算。 盟軍方面所制定的入侵計畫，不僅考慮到避開德軍準備最好的防禦地段的問題，而月．還有更進一步的設想。盟軍司令部認為，在諾曼第海岸線上實行登陸，可以同時威脅到兩個重要的港口勒阿弗爾和瑟堡。因此，直到最後一分鐘，他們竟使德國人迷惑不解，搞不清他們主要的目標究竟是哪個港口，從而陷入了左右為難的窘境。等到德國人弄清楚盟軍爭奪的主要目標是瑟堡港以後，已經來不及把預備隊向那裡調運了，因為塞納河上的橋樑已被盟軍炸毀，大河變成一道鴻溝，增援的預備隊必須繞行一個很大的圈子，才有可能開到出事的地點。而在這時，盟軍的空軍部隊也在不斷地進行空中襲擊，使德軍的調動必須花費更長的時間。後來，德軍的增援部隊總算開到了作戰地區，但只不過達到了岡的境內，而這裡距離瑟堡還有很遠的路程。英軍在岡地區內進行了集結，因而又對德軍構成了威脅，也形成為一道屏障，可以掩護正在瑟堡半島進行作戰的美軍。這種行動的雙重效用和交替威脅，加上敵人對於主要突擊方向一直弄不準確，為整個登陸戰役的成功作了很大的貢獻。 盟軍的龐大船隊在航渡當中沒有受到阻擾，他們對於海岸灘頭的佔領，比預料的情況容易得多。當時只有一個例外，那就是美軍的左翼在維爾河河口以東實行上陸時，遭受了相當的損失。這次登陸獲得成功，主要是戰役計畫訂得完美，而且大量使用了新式武器裝備。不過，成功也並不是馬上得來的。成與敗的機會曾經間不容髮，所差的距離實在比一般人想像的還要窄些。盟軍上陸以後，灘頭陣地的發展並不深遠，未能控制住通向岡和瑟堡的鎖鑰陣地。所幸的是，盟軍進攻的正面相當寬廣，使他們得有機會在其他方向獲取戰果。德軍的注意力，自然是集中在盟軍上陸部隊的兩側，以便於扼守那些鎖鑰陣地，因而必然要使中間陣地上的兵力受到削弱。在阿羅曼施附近實施登陸的英軍，由於迅速地向前推進，很快便擴大了登陸場，搶佔了貝葉，因而在一個星期內就便其登陸場大大擴張了：東到奧恩河，西抵維爾河，正面差不多有六十五公里，縱深也將近二十公里。在科湯坦半島的東邊，盟軍也確保了另外一個登陸場，只是範圍比較小一些；六月十二日，美軍奪取了一個中間據點卡朗坦。這樣，就使整個登陸場連接起來了，其寬度達到了一百公里。 在艾森豪的領導下，蒙哥馬利負責整個登陸部隊的指揮。這時，他可以使用登陸部隊更廣泛地採取進攻行動。 第二個星期，在西面側翼上，盟軍登陸場的範圍有了顯著的擴張。在那裡，美軍第一集團軍發展了進攻，穿越了科湯坦半島的最狹窄的部位。與此同時，在東面側翼上，英軍第二集團軍繼續牽制著德軍增援部隊的主要力量，特別是敵人的坦克師，並且向岡地區實行了進攻。從戰略上來說，英軍在東面突破德軍防禦陣地的威脅，可以算是一種間接路線，足以幫助蒙哥馬利實現其在西部突破敵人防禦的計畫。 在第三個星期，美軍首先切斷了瑟堡與外地的聯繫，而後向半島的頂端推進，從後方攻進了這個港口。瑟堡港是在六月二十七日被攻破的，當時已經遭到破壞，暫時不能使用。在岡地區，由於地形條件較好，便於德軍實行機動防禦，英軍的多次衝擊都被德軍技巧的防禦行動擊退了。但是，在英軍不斷地實施突擊的情況下，德軍統帥部終於喪失了使用預備隊的自由權。 在登陸部隊進攻行動的掩護下，侵入軍增加兵力的速度不斷加快。當時，人工港口對此也起了很大的作用，因為它抵消了天氣的干擾作用，增加了突然襲擊的效力，使敵人的計算終歸失靈。 俄軍攻入波蘭 俄軍在芬蘭前線發動一個前奏性的攻勢以後，隨即展開了一九四四年的夏季戰局。這次戰局是在六月二十三日揭開序幕的，正好是希特勒入侵俄國三周年紀念日的後一天，進攻的矛頭，開始指向白俄羅斯，指向普里皮亞特大沼澤地以北地區。在一九四三年的戰局中，這一地段在整個戰線上曾經顯得最為穩定，所以德國人一直對它比較放心，擺在那裡的兵力，要比擺在普里皮亞特大沼澤地與喀爾巴阡山之間那個暴露地區的兵力少得多，因為他們認為，俄軍可能會在春天向那裡發起進攻。這樣一來，擔任防守任務的德軍部隊，又一次陷入了驚慌失措的境地。 希特勒拒絕了將軍們的建議，不准把戰線後移到距離前沿一百四十五公里的別列津納河一線，認為那樣反而於自己不利，因此，德軍的處境不斷惡化。假使及時實行這樣的退卻，則俄軍的進攻計畫可能被打破，俄軍的攻勢有可能暫時停頓下來。 一旦德軍的防線被突破，俄軍的進展即開始變得異常地迅速。由巴格拉米楊和切爾尼亞霍夫斯基指揮的二個方面軍，採取向心突擊的方法，在發起進攻後的第四天就攻克了維帖布斯克。於是，德軍第三坦克集團軍的正面被打開了一個大缺口。這是俄軍向南突進的一條道路，他們可以從此橫穿莫斯科至明斯克的公路，前出到德軍第四集團軍的後方。德軍第四集團軍的部隊，當時曾向第聶伯河一線作了短距離的後撤，因而在一定程度上削弱了俄軍攻勢的力量。與此同時，羅科索夫斯基方面軍則在德軍巨型突出部的另一翼側插進一刀。該方面軍的各部隊在普里皮亞特大沼澤地北面突破德軍防禦以後，繼續向西發展進攻，平均每晝夜前進三十二公里，其任務是要在明斯克的背後切斷交通線，使這個重要的鐵路樞紐站陷於孤立境地。七月三日，明斯克被俄軍攻克。 俄軍實施了許多次的間接性進攻，使德軍的整個防禦體系開始全面崩潰。這時俄軍所捕獲的俘虜，比以前任何一次突破時所捉的都多。而在幾個星期以後，儘管俄軍的進軍速度仍然和初期一樣地快，但俘虜的數字卻逐漸減少了。這樣兩個事實的結合，頗有一些意義。一方面，它表示德軍部隊的退卻已經掌握了一定的技巧，而且到這時，希特勒已不得不同意實行全面的撤退。只一方面，德軍退卻的快速程度和規模，以及不經任何戰鬥便放棄一些重要據點等事實，表明俄軍指揮官們的作戰技巧已有了提高，他們能夠採取間接路線來摧毀敵人的抵抗。 對於這些戰役的進程加以分析，可以發現俄軍戰略的一些特點。在每一次進攻戰役中，俄軍的突擊總是能夠同時威脅兩個重大的中心，既可以對付這個目標，也可以對付那個目標。可是，它隨即又會突然地繞過這兩個目標，從它們中間守兵薄弱的地區穿越過去，滲透到敵人後方很遠的地方，迫使敵人無法抵抗而不得不同時放棄兩個據點。同樣值得注意的是，俄軍只是在兩次大規模進攻戰役中，即在華沙戰役和因斯坦堡戰役中，才第一次遭到了嚴重的挫敗，而在這兩個場合，都是採取直接路線的形式實施進攻的。 不到兩個星期，俄軍即把白俄羅斯境內的德軍全部肅清了。一九四四年七月中旬，他們已經攻佔了波蘭東北部一半以上的地區，緊接著就逼進到了布列斯特｜里托夫斯克（即今布列斯特）和別洛斯托克一線，包圍了維爾紐斯（過去稱維爾諾），渡過了涅曼河，前進到了東普魯士邊界。在這個方向上，向西進攻的俄軍已經遠離德軍林德曼集團軍群約有三百二十公里的距離了。當時，林德曼的部隊還在波羅的海沿岸，在納爾瓦至普斯科夫一線進行防守。因此，他們已不幸地陷入了腹背受敵的窘境。 七月十四日，在普里皮亞特沼澤地南面，沿著科韋耳至塔爾諾波爾的正面，俄軍發動了他們期望已久的攻勢。可是，那裡的德軍早已實行後撤了。俄軍僅用十天時間，即前進到了利沃夫，隨後又抵近盧布林，那裡地處華沙東南，距離華沙只有一百六十公里。在這同一星期，俄軍先後攻克了別列梅什爾、布列斯特｜里托夫斯克和別洛斯托克等要塞城市。在北翼方面，俄軍經過德文斯克（陶格夫匹爾斯），向里加西面的波羅的海沿岸實施了進攻。這樣一來，林德曼的部隊就面臨著退路被切斷的危險，因為他們的後撤仍然非常緩慢。七月底，俄軍前進到里加灣，而在中央方面則滲透到了華沙的郊區。 後來事件的發展表明，德軍在退到足以保障安全的距離以後，終於恢復了自製能力，逐漸地控制住了眼前的局勢。他們獲得了一定的喘息時間，在新的防線上進行了鞏固工作。俄軍前進得太快，其交通線伸展得太遠，因而補給一時跟不上來。事實上，這是戰略性伸展過度的自然規律在開始發生作用。人們不久即可看到，德軍並沒有喪失進行抵抗的能力。但是對於俄軍來說，為了繼續實施進攻，必須要在新解放的大片土地上恢復交通線，為此又需要有相當的時間。 八月初，德軍實施了反突擊，打通了北面的退卻道路，並且把俄軍逐出了華沙近郊。在那裡，德軍還有足夠強大的力量。他們把波蘭人在華沙城內暴發的起義迅速地鎮壓下去了。這個起義是在俄軍逐漸接近該城時爆發起來的。在華沙南面，俄軍仍然在維斯瓦河對岸控制著一個橋頭陣地，但是並未能進一步加以擴展。這樣延續到八月底，整個局勢沒有發生重大變化。 這個暫時的停戰僵局，後來是被俄軍的新攻勢打破的。他們在南面發動了進攻羅馬尼亞的戰役。差不多就在俄軍發起進攻的同時，即在八月二十三日，羅馬尼亞政府宣布，它願意締結和約。這個行動等於給實力雄厚的俄軍敞開了一條進攻大道。於是，俄軍穿過了雅西城，沿著普魯特河與塞列特河中間的走廊地帶一直向南推進，抵達了加拉茨與福克夏尼之間的通道口。這對俄軍大有好處，使他們得以合圍當時仍然駐在普魯特河以東一個突出部上的德軍部隊。俄軍從他們的背後直接插過來，繼續發展進攻，於八月二十七日攻佔了加拉茨和福克夏尼，三十日又佔領普洛耶什蒂油田區，次日，進入布加勒斯特。俄軍的坦克在十二天內前進了四百公里。 此後，俄軍即同時向著北、西、南三個方面繼續突進，作扇形展開。他們越過了特蘭西瓦尼亞阿爾卑斯山，向匈牙利方向挺進；為了切斷駐希臘德軍師的退路，前出到了南斯拉夫的邊界；同時，還急速地向南開進，越過多瑙河進入了保加利亞直到這時，蘇聯政府才正式向保宣戰。 義大利的僵局 盟軍曾經認為，羅馬陷落以後，德軍在義大利境內的抵抗很快就會終止。可是，凱賽林卻把自己的部隊撤出了險惡的困境，而且使用的手段非常高明。他對盟軍北上的進攻，組織了很有效的抵抗。盟軍花了整整七個星期的時間，兩個集團軍才僅僅到達阿諾河一線，雖然抵近了比薩和佛羅倫斯的郊區，但距離羅馬城只不過二百六十公里。此後，凱賽林繼續在那裡堅持了三個星期的防禦，後來才放棄佛羅倫斯，從阿諾河一線撤退到自己在山地中設置的主防線哥德防線。 亞歷山大將軍考慮到這道障礙的堅韌性質，決定採取一個側面的進攻行動。他把第八集團軍的主力調到了亞得里亞海岸邊上，於八月底在佩紮羅地區向哥德防線東部瀕誨地段發起了進攻。進攻獲得成功，突破了德軍防線，隨後擬向里米尼方向（佩紮羅西北二十三公里）繼續發展。 然而，凱賽林卻設法阻止了這個威脅的發展，封閉了突破口。這就使亞歷山大不得不轉而採取硬攻的手段。他連續不斷地實施突擊，逐漸地打開了一條通向波河河谷東部的道路。但是，在這個平原上幾乎到處都是葡萄園，地面都是粘性土壤，每到雨後便成了爛泥潭，很不便於通行，因而使部隊的調動非常困難。這年秋天的大雨，對於因為長久苦戰而疲憊不堪的德軍來說，實在是一個意外的救星，使他們避免了崩潰危險，因而形成了一個新的僵持局面。這個局面一直延續到了一九四五年的春天。 一九四四年八月，為了入侵法國南部，亞歷山大的部隊被抽調走了一部分。實際上，這個牽制性戰役對於法國北部主戰場上的決定性行動，並沒有多大價值。早在南部實行登陸以前，而且是二個星期以前，北面戰役的勝利即已成了定局。可是，這卻剝奪了亞歷山大在數量上的優勢。如果不失去這個優勢，亞歷山大也許早就贏得了意大利戰役的勝利。不過，這件事終於又使盟軍獲得了利益。由於亞歷山大的秋季戰役未能取得決定性的戰果，德軍才沒有自動撤退到阿爾卑斯山的山麓地區，而仍然停駐在原地。如果德軍當時撤退了，那