Chapter 156 Volume 5, Chapter 1, Command of the Seas: Guadalcanal and New Guinea

Dominance of the seas is liberated in the Mediterranean Sea The desperate struggle against the U-boats The Battle of the Atlantic is a pivotal factor in the war The Convoy of the Atlantic Convoy The decisive battle and victory over the U-boats The air cover protects our merchant fleet The culmination of April 1943 is worth it Welcome Intermittent New Weapons Snorkeled Submarines A Review of the Pacific War The Struggle for New Guinea Solomon Islands Guadalcanal Great Expeditions Our Efforts to Help the United States The End of the Japanese Offensive Japan's Lost Situation in New Guinea change.

At the end of the previous volumes, we stated that the invaders in Europe and Asia have been forced to take the defensive.In February 1943, the Battle of Stalingrad marked a turning point in the Russian situation.By May, all German and Italian soldiers on the African continent had been killed or captured.A year earlier, American victories in the Coral Sea and Midway had halted Japanese expansion in the Pacific.Australia and New Zealand are no longer threatened with aggression.From now on, in Europe, the Axis powers will have to wait and wait for the long-planned attack by Britain and the United States.The vast American Army was growing in strength and quality every month, but unless another major favorable turn of events occurred, the Western Allies would never be able to strike Hitler's Europe and bring the war to a decisive conclusion.During 1943, the command of the seas of the United Kingdom and the United States had an absolute advantage on the surface and underwater of the ocean.The new term command of the sea refers to the combined force of naval and air forces, properly intertwined.It wasn't until after April and May that the German U-boats were defeated and we finally took control of the transatlantic lifeline.Without this command of the sea, the large-scale amphibious operations necessary for the liberation of Europe would not be possible.When most of Europe is still under Hitler's control, Soviet Russia is bound to deal with all of Hitler's remaining troops alone.

In the Mediterranean, German submarines were also subdued.Our troops for Sicily and Italy are being assembled, and they can now cross the seas to attack Hitler's underbelly in Europe.In addition, the Mediterranean was also the main shipping route for the British Empire.The complete elimination of Axis power in North Africa has enabled our convoys to reach Egypt, India and Australia; from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Suez Canal, naval and air forces from newly occupied bases along the way protect the channel.The long circuitous voyage round the Cape of Good Hope, which had cost us greatly in time, strength, and tonnage, was soon coming to an end.Forty-five days are saved on average for each batch of transport fleets heading to the Middle East, which greatly increases our maritime transport capacity at once.

Britain's struggle alone against German submarines, magnetic mines, and sea raiders during the first two and a half years of the war has been described.The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, which led to the United States fighting alongside us, was the most important event long awaited, but at first it seemed to increase our losses at sea. Three sea powers.Guadalcanal and New Guinea lost a total of 4 million tons of merchant shipping in 1940 and over 4 million tons in 1941.After the United States became our ally in 1942, the number of allied ships expanded, but almost eight million tons were sunk.By the end of 1942, German U-boats had sunk more ships than we had built.All our hopes and plans are pinned on the huge shipbuilding program of the United States.During 1943 the statistical curve for new tonnage rose sharply, while the statistical curve for losses fell.Before the end of 1943, the tonnage of our newly added ships finally exceeded the loss at sea from various causes, and in the second quarter of the same year, the loss of German submarines exceeded its replenishment rate for the first time. .

It will not be long before there will be a situation where more German U-boats will be sunk in the Atlantic than merchant ships will be sunk.But before that, we have to go through a long and arduous struggle. Throughout the course of the war, the Battle of the Atlantic has been a pivotal factor. We shall never forget for a single moment that everything that happens elsewhere, by land, sea, or air, depends in the end on the outcome of the Battle of the Atlantic; Observe the changes in the Atlantic campaign every day.People have been engaged in hard labor for a long time in an environment that is often extremely boring, repeatedly frustrated, and often encounters unexpected disasters. This kind of life is often refreshed by unexpected or dramatic events.Yet for every sailor and airman in the anti-submarine combat, their days remain fraught and unremarkable, with few exhilarating battles to break up the dull monotony .They could never let their guard down for a moment, and at any moment could flash before their eyes a dire crisis, sometimes with glorious bliss, sometimes with life-threatening tragedy.Many acts of heroism and deeds of incredible fortitude have been recorded, but the stories of those who were martyred are lost forever.The seamen of our merchant ships displayed their noblest qualities, and the brotherhood of the sea was most prominently displayed in their determination to defeat the German U-boat.

We've made important adjustments within Combat Commands.Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham, who had been stationed in Washington as head of our naval delegation, was called home in October 1942 to take command of the Allied navies participating in Operation Torch.Admiral Sir Percy Noble, who had been commanding the Atlantic campaign at Derby House, Liverpool's western seaport headquarters, since the beginning of 1941, was at this time with an incomparable sense of the German submarine problem. Knowledge went to Washington, and his duties at Liverpool were replaced by Admiral Sir Max Horton.Admiral Horton had previously shown outstanding ability in commanding British submarine operations.In February 1943, Air Force Lieutenant General Slesser became the commander-in-chief of the Air Force Coastal Defense Corps.These arrangements turned out to be correct.

The Casablanca Conference had declared that defeating the German U-boats was our primary goal.In March 1943, under the auspices of Admiral King, the Atlantic Escort Conference was held in Washington, the purpose of which was to concentrate all the power of the Allied forces on the Atlantic.This system does not amount to complete unity of command.We and the United States have close cooperation at all levels and complete rapport at the top leadership, but the two allies have approached this issue in different ways.The United States has no such structure as our Air and Coastal Defense Corps; and through such a structure, on the British side, or on the aided side of the Atlantic, air operations are directed by a separate command.This achieves a high degree of flexibility.The air force formation can quickly move from a calm area to a dangerous area, while controlling sea power.Commands on Guadalcanal and New Guinea also regularly received substantial reinforcements from the United States.In Washington, on the other hand, command is carried out through a number of independent subordinate commands called coastal outposts, each assigned a certain number of aircraft.

The winter storms took a toll on our convoys, but stopped the U-boat attack.After the winter storm passed in February 1943, the number of enemy submarines assembled in the North Atlantic rose sharply.Although the combat submarines under the command of German Admiral Dönitz suffered heavy losses, the number rose to 212 in early 1943.In March, more than a hundred submarines were regularly at sea, so it was no longer possible to escape the hordes of submarines by cleverly changing course.This problem can only be solved by the combined sea and air forces of the convoy itself.During that month, almost 700,000 tons of ships were sunk all over the world.

Under these pressures, we have reached a new agreement in Washington, under which the United Kingdom and Canada assume full responsibility for the protection of the convoys traveling to the United Kingdom along the main North Atlantic shipping routes.We are now engaged in a decisive battle with German U-boats and have won.This was commanded by two combined naval and air commands, one at Liverpool, headed by a British admiral, and the other at Halifax, headed by a Canadian naval admiral. will be responsible. Henceforth, British and Canadian ships provided maritime protection in the Atlantic, while the United States remained responsible for protecting their merchant fleets sailing to the Mediterranean and their own troop carriers.In the air, the air forces of Great Britain, Canada, and the United States were in full compliance with the day-to-day requirements of the combined headquarters at Liverpool and Halifax.

The gap over the North Atlantic, southeast of Greenland, was now filled by long-range Liberator squadrons based in Newfoundland and Iceland.During April, aircraft shuttled along the entire route for daylight air cover.Swarms of U-boats were forced to lurk on the bottom of the sea and were constantly harassed, while the air escorts of the convoys, and surface escorts, dealt with the enemy raiders.Our forces are now strong enough to form swarms of independent flotillas, acting like cavalry divisions without any escort.This is something I've been looking forward to for a long time. At this time, the hydrogen sulfide blind bomber described in [1] in the fourth volume played a significant role.Some of these blind bombers were handed over to the Air Force and Coastal Defense Corps with great reluctance by our Bomber Command.The radar we used had a long wave, and the Germans had learned how to do reconnaissance, so before our pilots could attack the German submarine, it would have sunk to the bottom of the sea.With the new method we used, the radio waves were very short, and it took the Germans several months to discover how to conduct reconnaissance.Hitler complained that this invention was the cause of the demise of submarine warfare.This is exaggerated.

【1】See page 251 of the original volume of the fourth volume. (The page numbers noted below for referring to other chapters of this book are the page numbers of the original book. Translator) However, in the Bay of Biscay, the British and American air offensives quickly made the passing German submarines panic all day long.Rockets fired from aircraft were extremely destructive at the time, so the enemy began to swarm the water with submarines and use artillery during the day to repel the aircraft.Such desperate attempts are futile.In March and April 1943, twenty-seven German submarines were destroyed in the Atlantic Ocean alone, more than half of which were destroyed by aircraft. Seven sea power.Guadalcanal and New Guinea In April 1943, we could see a change in the balance of power between the two sides.Two hundred and thirty-five U-boats were engaged, the highest number ever achieved by the Germans, but their sailors were beginning to waver and feel insecure any longer.Even under favorable conditions their raids were no longer able to hit home, and during this month our loss of shipping in the Atlantic was reduced by almost 300,000 tons.In May alone, forty U-boats were destroyed in the Atlantic.The German Admiralty watched their report with nervousness. By the end of May, Admiral Dönitz would withdraw his surviving submarine fleet from the North Atlantic to rest, or send it to safer waters to fight.By June 1943, ship losses were the lowest since the United States entered the war.The convoy passed unharmed and the Atlantic supply lines were secured. [1] During the same period, seven German submarines and three Italian submarines were sunk in the Mediterranean. The victory over the U-boat[1] affected all subsequent events, and we must therefore dwell on some more here.Air weapons are now finally starting to play their full role.The United Kingdom and the United States no longer consider issues from a purely naval operational point of view, or from an air force operational point of view at sea.What they were preoccupied with was the creation of a vast maritime organization in which the naval and air services, the British and American nations, worked together and became increasingly adept at seeing each other's capabilities and limitations.To be victorious requires strategically savvy and unwavering leadership, coupled with the highest standards of training and technical effectiveness at all levels. [1] Each of these figures includes an Italian submarine. In June 1943, the surviving German U-boat fleet stopped attacking our North Atlantic merchant fleet, and we received a welcome respite.At one time, the enemy's activities were spread over the vast expanses of the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Our defenses in those oceans were relatively weak, but we also had fewer exposed targets there.Our air offensive against the entrances and exits of the German submarine bases in the Bay of Biscay continued to gain strength.Thirty-seven submarines were sunk during July, thirty-one of them by air raids, and more than half were sunk in the Bay of Biscay.In the last three months of 1943, fifty-three submarines were destroyed, while we lost only forty-seven merchant ships. Throughout the stormy autumn, German U-boats tried unsuccessfully to regain superiority in the North Atlantic.Our combined naval and air defenses were now so strong that in every battle the submarines fought against the convoys, the losses were high and the gains small.In antisubmarine warfare, airborne weapons are now on par with surface ships.Our convoys are protected by more and more powerful sea escorts than ever before, and these escorts are reinforced by escort aircraft carriers, capable of short- and long-range air protection.In addition, we have a method of searching for submarines, and as soon as we find them, we have a method of destroying them.A convoy of combined aircraft carriers and escorts, supported by long-range aircraft of the Air Force Coastal Defense Corps, which now included USAF squadrons, proved decisive.One such convoy, under the command of our most eminent expert in submarine destruction, Captain Walker of the Royal Navy, destroyed six submarines in a single patrolling voyage. During this period, the so-called merchant aircraft carrier appeared.This is entirely the way the British came up with, which is to equip an ordinary cargo ship or oil tanker with a take-off deck for naval aircraft.Such a ship maintains its status as a merchant vessel and carries its cargo, while helping to protect the merchant fleet it is a part of.There are nineteen such ships, two of which fly the Dutch flag, operating in the North Atlantic.Before the merchant aircraft carrier appeared, there was a merchant ship loaded with catapult take-off aircraft, but its technical equipment was different.The advent of these two merchant ships marked a new stage in naval warfare.Transport ships now attack enemy ships instead of just parrying them when attacked.The already indistinct line between ships of combat and ships of non-combat almost ceased to exist. The vast wartime production of the United States was now reaching its peak.Long-range aircraft and ships of many types, including our much-needed escort aircraft carriers, are pouring in from America's shipyards and aircraft factories.Many of these products, as well as a lot of special equipment, especially radar, were given to us to help our own industry, while the US Navy and Air Force also fought in various places. Although Admiral Dönitz had to retreat steadily in the face of the harsh facts, he still maintained the same number of submarines at sea as before.The submarine offensive, however, was on the wane, and few attempts were made to break through our lines.Still, he expressed no disappointment.On January 20, 1944, he said: The enemy has gained an advantage in defense.One day in the future, I will show Churchill a first-class submarine warfare.The submarine weapon was not completely destroyed by the setbacks of 1943.Instead, the weapon has grown more powerful.1944 will be a successful but difficult year in which we will smash British supply lines with new submarine weapons. This belief is not entirely unfounded.In early 1944, Germany was making a huge effort to develop a new type of submarine.This new type of submarine can move faster and have a longer range under the surface.Meanwhile, many older submarines had been withdrawn to Germany to operate off the British coast with snorkels installed.This new device enables the submarine to reload its shells and prepare them for firing when it is submerged, leaving only a small tube to breathe on the surface.Submarines were thus able to evade aerial detection with relative ease, and it soon became clear that such snorkeled submarines were ready to harass the passages of the English Channel should the Allies attack. It is necessary to look back here in order to remind the reader of those thrilling and remote combat operations in 1942 that changed the entire war situation in the Far East. When the British naval power was mainly deployed in the Atlantic and Mediterranean, the United States almost alone bore the entire burden of the war against Japan.On the vast ocean, from India to the west coast of the United States, we have no support but the meager naval power of Australia and New Zealand.The depleted Eastern Fleet, which we were stationed in East Africa at this time, could only protect our merchant fleet for a while.But the tide has turned in the Pacific.The United States has re-established naval superiority, and Japan is now trying to consolidate their acquired territory in eastern India, so there is no spare power to invade the Indian Ocean.Since the battles of the Coral Sea and Midway in the summer of 1942, much has happened in the Pacific.Admiral Nimitz based his headquarters at Pearl Harbor and controlled the northern, central, and southern Pacific Ocean.General MacArthur arrived in Australia from the Philippine Islands in March 1942. He was in charge of the southwestern Pacific Ocean, extending from the coast of China to Australia, including the Philippine Islands, the Bismarck Islands, New Guinea, the entire eastern coast of Australia, and the Solomon Islands. wait inside. The Royal Japanese Navy, deeply aware of the defeat in the central Pacific, once again moved to the southwest Pacific.Here, at a distance from the main body of the US Navy, they hoped to resume their victorious progress.The Battle of the Coral Sea had thwarted the enemy's attack on Port Moresby, New Guinea, so they decided to cross the Owen Stanley Mountains and attack by land.Thus began the scramble for New Guinea.At the same time, they decided to take the Solomon Islands, a British protectorate. [1] They have occupied a small island called Tulagi, and will soon start building an air base on the nearby island of Guadalcanal.They hoped that after the capture of Port Moresby and Guadalcanal, the Coral Sea would become a lake in Japan, with the north-eastern part of Australia as its edge.From Guadalcanal, Japanese pilots could reach other, farther island groups, thereby harassing the main sea line of communication between the United States and New Zealand.In countering these two attacks, the United States and Australia made commendable contributions in the heroic combined air and sea operations relying on naval power. 【1】British magistrates and magistrates stationed there, as well as a small number of British residents, remained in the Solomon Islands throughout the war.Loyal local natives protected them.They set up a coastal observation post with notable success.These loyal people, the information transmitted by radio is of great help to the US Command. Solomon Islands has become a battleground for both sides.Admiral King in Washington had long intended to occupy the islands.On July 4, 1942, aerial reconnaissance indicated that the enemy had established an air base on Guadalcanal.Admiral Gormley, who was in command in the South Pacific, dispatched the 1st Division of the Marine Corps, which had arrived in New Zealand, to launch an attack on August 7 before the plan was completed.The unfinished Japanese air base was quickly captured, and the Battle of Guadalcanal began.The campaign lasted six months. Operating from their main fleet bases in the Carolines and Rabaul, the Japanese could maintain naval and air superiority in these waters.The Japanese commander at Rabaul immediately dispatched a strong fleet of cruisers and destroyers to Guadalcanal.In the early morning of August 9, under the cover of a violent storm, the Japanese unexpectedly attacked the allied navy guarding the sea near the pier and almost wiped out the defenders.In about forty minutes they sank three American heavy cruisers and the Australian HMS Canberra, while taking only minor losses themselves.If the Japanese admiral had continued his attack after this brilliant victory, he would have been able to reach the eastern side of the strait and destroy the American transports which were still unloading troops and supplies, but, unlike this battle Like the Japanese commanders before and after him, he missed his opportunity and withdrew his fleet. However, the American commander failed to continue to support the landing.Having unloaded everything he could, he retreated, leaving 17,000 marines alone on the shore of the enemy-occupied island.They had no air cover and could be attacked by a powerful force on the ground.This is indeed a grim moment.But the U.S. Marine Corps is undeterred.Despite constant air raids, they held and strengthened their positions and improvised a sea supply route, also using captured airfields.From this point on, fighter jets and dive bombers, piloted by Marines, were dispatched from the Guadalcanal mainland and were able to provide immediate assistance. At this time, the Japanese tried to fight it out at sea.On August 24, north of the Solomon Islands, a deadly battle took place.Enemy transports approaching Guadalcanal were repulsed by our Air Force attack.On August 31, the American aircraft carrier USS Saratoga was damaged by a submarine. Two weeks later, the British aircraft carrier HMS Wasp, which had a high reputation in the Mediterranean, was sunk.Both the enemy and us are gathering strength.At the beginning of October, in another night battle, a strong Japanese cruiser fleet was driven back by us, one of which was sunk; but two enemy battleships bombarded the airfield, and soon landed 4,500 reinforcements.Another crisis is looming. It is also natural that Admiral Nimitz and General MacArthur advocated reducing operations in Europe and giving priority to the Pacific battlefield.Their views were strongly supported by Admiral King in Washington.But now the offensive in Northwest Africa (Operation Torch Plan) is the most important thing, and the main strategy overrides everything else.At this time, the battle on land was reaching its climax.For ten consecutive days beginning October 19, 1942, the Marines fighting in the jungle held all their positions, beating the Japanese immobile.In another fleet battle, fought primarily by air forces, north of the Solomon Islands, the aircraft carrier Hornet was sunk, as was the aircraft carrier Enterprise and the battleship South Dakota, as well as two cruisers.On the Japanese side, two aircraft carriers were lost. Admiral Halsey, who succeeded Admiral Gormley, now finding himself without any aircraft carriers, requested, through Admiral Nimitz, that one or more British aircraft carriers be allocated to him.Although we don't know much about America's plans in the Pacific, we do know that the Solomon Islands are at stake.It was evident that the aircraft carrier would not reach the operational location for many weeks.I am anxious to lend a hand in this heroic struggle, but as the British and American armies will be landing in North West Africa, and the main naval duties will fall upon us, we cannot present our proposals at once.It was only in December that the pressure and climax of the Operation Torch program eased.At this time, I called President Roosevelt to describe the situation of our aircraft carrier in detail, and to make the best proposal within our ability. former navy personnel to president roosevelt December 2, 1942 Having received your request for an aircraft carrier to support the Pacific Fleet, we have been actively seeking to accommodate your wishes.We found it difficult to make a decision for the limited number of important ships that our aircraft carriers had been in designated and dangerous waters for the Operation Torch program until we knew their specific conditions on the ground.The danger of the Torch Operation has not been eliminated, because even if we establish a coast-based air group, it is impossible to draw out the two aircraft carriers currently participating in the Torch Operation.However, knowing your urgent need for aircraft carrier support in the Pacific, we are now ready to take a risk and make a decision on the ships we can offer. Our carrier strength consists of four armored fleet carriers with high endurance.We are going to draw the Radiance from the Eastern Fleet and put the Unicorn and an auxiliary aircraft carrier under the command of Admiral Somerville.At the same time, we are also preparing to draw the Victory from the home fleet; if you can get (your) Ranger (a small aircraft carrier) to join the home fleet, we are ready to allocate the Victory and the Radiance to your use.In view of the extreme importance of the Atlantic shipping lines and the need to support the merchant fleet in the north of Russia, the possible presence of the Graf Zeppelin before the end of the year, and the current status of the Dreadnought and the Dreadnought, we cannot afford to do so without adding the Raider to the Home Fleet. Under the circumstances, call out the Victory and the Radiance. If it could be arranged, I would be more than willing to put two aircraft carriers at your disposal instead of one, as this would not only increase your strength, but would also allow the two aircraft carriers to operate as a tactical group.This also appears to be necessary since neither aircraft carrier is equipped with enough aircraft to allow it to operate alone.I advise Admiral Palist to take command, many of your officers are acquainted with him.The two aforementioned aircraft carriers decided to sail to Pearl Harbor, arriving about the end of December, to replenish their aircraft. If you agree to this transfer, Pound will work out some details with King. But Admiral King was unwilling to call out the Ranger, and as a result, we could only send Victory.Victory left the Home Fleet for Pearl Harbor in December. Meanwhile, during November, a series of naval and air battles took place near the Solomon Islands, with heavy losses on both sides.These battles proved decisive in hindsight.On the night of November 13, in a fierce battle, two American cruisers and four destroyers were destroyed, and two American admirals were killed simultaneously.On the Japanese side, one battleship and two destroyers were sunk.At this time, eleven Japanese transport ships carrying powerful reinforcements were heading for Guadalcanal.In the ensuing 36-hour fierce battle, the Japanese side was sunk a battleship, a cruiser and three destroyers, and most importantly, seven Japanese transport ships full of troops were also sunk; On the American side, only one destroyer was lost.Japan has so far lost confidence in the venture.The ever-increasing number of American reinforcements began to arrive, and the honorable Marines were relieved by the Army.The battle went on and on, but the enemy had lost all hope of victory.On January 4, 1943, the Imperial Headquarters of Tokyo ordered the evacuation of Guadalcanal.The enemy accomplished the task of retreating without suffering any serious losses.On February 9, Admiral Halsey was finally able to report that the island was in our possession. This episode marked the end of the climax of the Japanese offensive.In six major naval battles and many skirmishes, the United States lost two aircraft carriers, seven cruisers, and fourteen destroyers, in addition to the Australian cruiser HMS Canberra.Japanese losses were counted as one aircraft carrier, two battleships, four cruisers, and eleven destroyers.In terms of land, sea and air, both sides suffered heavy casualties.For those of us who have been there, Guadalcanal is not a place name, but an emotion, an American eyewitness wrote in his heartrending account I read. One recalls the desperate battles in the air, the fierce naval battles of the night, the frenzied efforts to supply and build, the brutal fights in the wet jungles, and the piercing noise of bombs and the deafening noise of the bombardment of warships piercing the night. Explosion. 【1】May this heroic story be told forever in this great republic of the United States. [1] See The Battle of Guadalcanal by S. E. Morrison. In New Guinea, the situation also changed.On July 22, 1942, the Japanese began to advance by land from the northern coast to Port Moresby, which was guarded by the 7th Australian Division brought back from the Middle East.The 13,000-foot Owen Stanley Mountains form the backbone of New Guinea's entire landmass.There is a narrow track through the mountains through various passes and native jungle.A lone militia battalion in Australia fought so stubbornly that five Japanese battalions did not approach Port Moresby until the second week of September.But by this time the enemy's advance had been stopped on the Ymita Ridge. While all this fighting was going on, two thousand Japanese marines landed from the sea in an attempt on August 26 to capture the three small airfields being built near Milne Bay, at the southern tip of the big island.Along the coast, after two weeks of fierce fighting, more than half of the invaders were killed, and the rest of the troops were also routed.The Japanese were in New Guinea and were forced to be on the defensive ever since.They attempted to capture both New Guinea and Guadalcanal, only to lose any chance of capturing either.At this time, they had to retreat along the mountain road under the close pursuit of the Australian ground forces and air force.Disease and starvation cost many of them their lives.The U.S.-Australian air forces are constantly increasing.The 32nd U.S. Division has arrived by air.Japanese transport ships carrying reinforcements suffered heavy losses.Ten thousand soldiers who resisted desperately fought against the sea and held the last line of defense in Buna.It was not until the third week of January 1943 that the last resistance was crushed.Survivors of the Japanese army were only a few hundred.More than 15,000 people were killed or died of hunger and disease.By February, the southeastern tip of New Guinea, as well as Guadalcanal, were firmly in Allied hands.A Japanese convoy of twelve transport ships, escorted by ten battleships, was going to reinforce their important outpost at Lae, but they were discovered by us when they passed the Bismarck Sea during the voyage.On March 2nd and 3rd, the convoy was attacked by air, and the transport ships and frigates carrying about 15,000 people were all destroyed. By June 1943, when the narrative of this volume begins, the situation in the Pacific was encouraging.The last Japanese assault was repulsed, and the enemy was now on the defensive everywhere.They had to pay a huge price to reinforce the positions they still held in New Guinea, especially the garrisons at Saramaua and Lae, and to build a series of reinforcement airfields along the coast.The movement of the Americans toward the Philippine Islands has become clear.General MacArthur was advancing west along the northern coast of New Guinea, and Admiral Halsey was approaching Rabaul along the Solomon Islands.Behind it all, lies the burgeoning power of the United States.Eighteen months had passed since Pearl Harbor, a period of time that had opened the Japanese rulers to certain facts and balances of power that they had previously dismissed.