Chapter 24 Chapter 22 Far from Africa?

Where do we come from?How did it all start?In terms of evolution, how did we far surpass other animals and develop into modern humans?Paleoanthropologists and archaeologists have long grappled with questions like these. These disciplines have developed into high-tech disciplines.At present, we have learned a lot about the history of prehistoric humans.Through special methods, we can even make a fairly accurate analysis of the diet of our ancestors.For example, in fossilized feces of early humans, there are food remnants such as pollen grains and animal bone fragments.These substances can be isolated by chemical methods for precise determination.In addition, we can also measure trace elements in human bones. Through this analysis, we can directly understand the dietary behavior of ancient humans.For example, by measuring the amount of strontium in the bones, it is possible to deduce the proportion of animal and plant food consumed at that time.Special bone analysis can also provide a lot of information about the physical diseases of our ancestors.

Of course, in this field of science, there have been many mysteries and mistakes, as well as new ideas that have repeatedly emerged and attracted strong criticism from other scientists.Maybe my opinion is not accurate, but my layman's impression is that at least a few paleoanthropologists have the courage to discard old ideas and replace old dogma with new scientific understanding.Here, I don't want to, and I can't get involved in the debate among experts.Originally, it is very difficult to summarize all the arguments that are considered correct by most people and have reference significance for nutrition lovers.Here I briefly introduce the most important stages of development in terms of nutrition and physiology in the course of human evolution.

To this day, experts debate an important question: did our ancestors develop into humans simultaneously in different parts of the world (multi-regional evolution), or did we first evolve anatomically in Africa, as we might borrow from Africa? A meaningful modern man, and from there, conquer the whole world?Many archaeological discoveries show that our direct ancestors developed from primitive creatures to human-like forms in equatorial Africa millions of years ago, and many of them migrated to the east coast of Africa and thrived in their new natural environment.Archaeological discoveries have proved that Homo sapiens lived on the coast between southern Africa and the Red Sea 150,000 to 100,000 years ago.From here they traveled to Asia Minor via a land bridge, and then entered the Asian continent.

However, new archaeological discoveries continue to overthrow this argument.Not long ago, we discovered the fossilized skeleton of a primate in Asia.Primates, the distant ancestors of humans, probably walked upright even though they were only the size of a squirrel.Therefore, it is likely that our distant ancestors did not live only in Africa 60 million years ago. Going back a little further, it is speculated that our diminutive relatives used to eat insects.Twenty to thirty million years ago, they developed into primates and lived in tropical rain forests. They continued to live in trees and mainly fed on plants, especially fruits, young leaves and other green plants.Insects and other small animals no longer occupy an important position in food.Like other animals, they grew larger and larger over time.

Seven million years ago, primates split into two branches: the great apes and the hominids.So, we didn't come from monkeys, but we have a common ancestor with monkeys.Genetically, we humans and chimpanzees are still strikingly similar, with 98.5% of our genetic traits identical About four to five million years ago, Australopithecus appeared.They lived until about a million years ago and were the ancestors of humans.In appearance, they are also very similar to apes.Over the long years, they gradually differentiated into different branches.One of them evolved into humans, and the others became extinct.

During the Ice Age, which began about two to three million years ago, the Earth's climate changed dramatically.The climate became drier, and the large tropical rainforests on the north and south sides of the equator became a mixture of forests, shrubs, savannahs and grasslands.Many of our ancestors had to leave the original fertile rainforest and adapt to the harsh living environment in the barren and arid marginal areas.This naturally also affects their food choices.There are fewer and fewer edible plants, and perhaps from this time on, they began to hunt small animals to supplement the dwindling fruits and green plants.A new analysis of fossilized bones clearly shows that Australopithecus was once such a carnivore.

About 2.3 million years ago, Homo habilis finally appeared.Their height is about 130 to 140 centimeters and their weight is 35 to 40 kilograms.Their stature is relatively short, they do not have effective hunting weapons, and their ability to divide and cooperate is unlikely to be very developed. Therefore, it can be concluded that they do not have the ability to hunt large animals.Homo habilis likely continued to feed on small, easy-to-catch animals. About 1.7 million years ago, Homo erectus appeared.They are about 165 centimeters tall, muscular and weigh 65 kilograms.Homo erectus was already very intelligent, and their brain capacity was very close to that of modern humans.They are also quite dexterous with their hands and can use stone tools.However, there is still less and less food to eat, so they have to move around frequently in search of food.Eating animal carcasses is no longer enough, as their population density has increased.We know that hunger makes us inventive, since our ancestors already had enormously increased brain size, giving them the ability to use weapons and tricks to surprise and outwit them.Their only way out is to take the initiative to hunt animals.

In the course of evolution, large mammals such as elephants, rhinos, and ungulates also multiplied in large numbers.It would be nice to eat some of these guys' meat.Some people couldn't help thinking this way, and they also came up with a trick to shorten the distance between themselves and the prey.Long and strong, a stick with a pointed end would do just that.Indeed, around that time hulking spears appeared, with which Homo erectus hunted fast ungulates. It didn't take long for these lucky hunters to discover that not only were the larger animals more meaty, but they also had more body fat than smaller animals.Hunting in this way is more worthwhile. Although it takes time, strength and courage, compared with catching small animals, obtaining large prey can make everyone eat more, save more energy, and leave some for others.Of course our ancestors could not have known that fatty meats provide more of the fatty acids our bodies need than leaner meats.They may not have noticed that as they hunted, distributed, and ate the fat game, their own brains grew smarter (see Chapter 24).

Meat as a dietary supplement has become more and more important over time.The desire for nutritious meat obviously overcomes the nostalgia for the hometown.Homo erectus followed its prey without thinking, following the dictates of its stomach.In this way, they traveled all the way to Europe and Asia. According to the latest discoveries, they also built bamboo rafts, sailed from Africa to Indonesia and Australia about 800,000 years ago, and settled there.Archaeological discoveries from China have conclusively proved that the Homo erectus there were also complete omnivores.If they are good hunters and lucky, they can catch larger prey.Otherwise, voles and larger mammals, as well as reptiles, birds and their eggs, and insects, supplement wild fruits, roots, and shoots.Homo erectus may have been the first to discover the role of storage.With long winters and few edible plants, it's a good idea to stockpile less perishable foods like nuts, tubers, and beans for later use.

During this ice age, Homo erectus' skin tone became lighter for the first time due to less sun exposure, allowing more ultraviolet light to enter the skin, where it helps make vitamin D.Homo erectus also formed an insulating layer of fat under the skin. About half a million years ago, our direct ancestor Homo sapiens emerged.He is a link in the evolutionary process that is connected to humans today. From an anatomical point of view, there are still some differences from us.Between 300,000 and 200,000 years ago, they began to cook food with fire.About 140,000 years ago, modern Homo sapiens was finally born. As for whether they only appeared in Africa or also appeared in Asia at the same time, we don’t want to discuss here.At the same time, around 200,000 BC, Neanderthals appeared in Europe. They lived on vast grasslands and mainly ate animal food, especially the meat of prey.

Around 40,000 BC, Homo sapiens also came to Central and Western Europe along with the Neanderthals.They probably took a detour on the way, passed through Asia, and from there traveled westward through Asia Minor, Greece and the Balkans to Germany and then to France. During this period, between 125,000 and 10,000 BC, the last ice age also occurred.This has had a huge impact on human survival in Africa and Europe, and humans must adapt to the harsh climate as soon as possible.As plant-based foods are scarce, animal-based foods become increasingly important.To extract the maximum value from exhausting hunting, humans targeted large mammals first.At the time, such animals died out in droves, and some species went extinct entirely.As more and more humans moved to the sea, the proportion of fish and other marine products in the diet gradually increased due to the invention of fishing nets, harpoons, and similar fishing implements.Fire and the manufacture of warm clothing were also extremely important in colder times. In the last 40,000 years of this period, the social behavior of Homo sapiens was also relatively close to that of modern humans.During this period, human technology and culture experienced unprecedented major developments.This is reflected in the highly developed tools, ornaments and murals, even the less dexterous Neanderthals, there are extraordinary works. Between 40,000 and 10,000 BC, this period is the true Stone Age.Homo sapiens and Neanderthals competed for dominance in Europe during this period.We all know the outcome of this struggle.Homo sapiens continued to subsist on wild animals and plants.In the cold season, in the vast grasslands, plants are still very scarce.Therefore, the Cro-Magnons living in Europe preferred to hunt the largest animals of that era.If you can hunt an ancient mammoth or bison, or at least a moose, it is a good achievement.We can now be assured that Homo sapiens also killed its own species from time to time, eating human flesh, preferably muscular Neanderthals.In addition, they began to process food, such as pounding, grinding, and roasting seeds and stones. In the Stone Age, humans invented a very effective hunting tool: the bow and arrow.With bows and arrows, humans can shoot the fastest animals, such as antelope and kudu, from a long distance.At the end of the Stone Age, around 13,000 BC, the temperature of the earth slowly rose again, and the area covered by vegetation gradually expanded.In some areas, wild cereals are growing again.Humans began to collect and process these grains.Humans also began to use fire to obtain more fertile pastures for livestock to kill more easily.Human agricultural life kicked off. Organized farming developed during the Neolithic period around 10,000 BC.Due to the rapid population growth, traditional hunting and gathering methods can no longer meet human needs for food, and planned production has become very important.In addition, as the ice ages ended, many large land animals became extinct, and wild meat became relatively scarce.At the same time, as the climate gradually warmed, more and more edible plants flourished and grew.In the Middle East, humans learned to grow grains.Grain soon became the most basic food of human beings, and in the following thousands of years, it spread from its origin through Greece, Italy, and Central Europe.The cultivation of fruits, vegetables and nuts was first developed in the Middle East.Around 9000 BC, humans began herding sheep and goats, and later cattle and pigs. Around 5000 BC, agriculture was booming in the world's most populous region.As a result, the food structure of human beings has undergone tremendous changes in a short period of time.The proportion of meat has dropped sharply, and humans must fill their stomachs with plant foods.According to the latest estimates, the average ratio of animal and plant food in the Stone Age was 65:35, and this ratio became 10:90 after the development of agricultural production. Thus began a development process full of contradictions.On the one hand, with the settlement of human beings and systematic food production, a high degree of civilization was formed and developed; on the other hand, this caused a sharp decline in the quantity and quality of human food.The nomads who live in no fixed place live by aquatic plants and prey, and their diet is relatively rich and varied.Once settled, humans could only feed on the harvest of the land.Human beings have fallen into dependence on production tools and environmental factors, unfavorable climatic conditions and the invasion of pests have always threatened the survival of human beings.Once there is a lack of harvest, it means famine.The strong dependence on agricultural production puts human beings under the threat of food shortage from time to time. With the development of agriculture, the rich and diverse natural diet composed of hundreds of different wild plants and animals in the past was replaced by a relatively simple diet mainly composed of plants, which brought about hunger, malnutrition and other possible diseases Consequences: increased infant mortality, orthopedic diseases such as osteoporosis and rickets, dental caries, anemia, susceptibility to infections, etc., and a resulting increase in overall mortality. Skeleton fossils from this period attest that the growth of human physique stalled with the introduction of agricultural production.The average human height suddenly became ten to fifteen centimeters shorter than before.This phenomenon is not limited to Europe and the Middle East, we have observed that indigenous peoples in North America have also experienced this change in size reduction.Everywhere in the world, no matter where, as long as such dietary changes occur, human health begins to decline.North Carolina State University anthropologist Clark.Professor Clark Larsen draws such a conclusion from these archaeological discoveries. Today, we can say that this tradition began as humans grew food: what humans eat is no longer what they need, but what they can get and produce.This tradition has continued to this day.In this light, some of the diet-determined diseases we are familiar with did not emerge after World War II as originally thought, and their roots were planted thousands of years ago